Trust creation and volunteer management in nonprofit hospitals

Trust Creation and the Management of Volunteers in Non-Profit Organizations

Rogers, Jiang, Rogers and Intindola (2015) suggest in their qualitative study of hospital volunteers that the volunteer plays a crucial role in the development of patient satisfaction. Their research shows that volunteers (by the very act of volunteering) cultivate within the environment a more pastoral and caring attitude, which pleases patients and helps them to heal in ways that ordinary employees cannot effect. The volunteer has the ability to represent a kind of community care. In short, the study indicates that volunteers are essential in trust creation (at least in the hospital setting) among patients and workers, and for that reason should be managed with a special view towards their innate abilities as volunteers (Rogers, Jiang, Rogers, Intindola, 2015). Moreover, the researchers suggest that the positive relationship between volunteers and patients has "important implications for hospital leaders, volunteer administrators, and future research," namely that the management of volunteers in nonprofit organizations should be viewed from the standpoint of the positive impact that the volunteer has within the organizational culture (Rogers, Jiang, Rogers, Intindola, 2015). This positivity is one aspect of the volunteer-management relationship that should be promoted and cultivated so that volunteers receive a rewarding sense of their contribution. Based on the findings of this study, the aim of management, so the researchers conclude, should be to encourage volunteerism in areas where a positive impact can be discerned and meaningful relationships fostered. It is the fostering of relationships that serves as the basis of trust.

Jacqui, Cairncross and Lamont (2014) focus on the separate issue of how to manage Generation Y volunteers most effectively in their study of volunteer workforces using a human resources development approach. They find that by identifying the needs of Generation Y volunteers, managers can more effectively harness and direct the energies of the former and use them in the overall facilitation of the organizational aims. Their study differs from the study by Rogers et al. (2015) in the sense that the latter focuses primarily on identifying the positive influence that volunteers bring to a nonprofit and promoting that, whereas the study by Jacqui et al. (2014) focuses primarily on the needs of the volunteers and making sure they are met so as to optimize volunteer effectiveness. Essentially, the two studies may be combined to reveal a more dynamic managerial approach to volunteerism, which is to identify both the needs and the positive influence that volunteers have so as to better guide and utilize them within the context of the organizational goals.

However, Fitzpatrick, Remmer and Leimanis (2015) show in their qualitative study of volunteers in an oncology support program that it is essential for volunteers to be properly trained in order for effectiveness to be significant. In the context of the nonprofit clinic, volunteers are not viewed as youths who are in need of validation, social status or esteem, as is the implicit case in the study by Jacqui et al. (2014). Here, the results indicate that volunteers are aware of being there to serve and are thus most in need of education before being put into use. Fitzpatrick et al. emphasize that management of volunteers within such an environment should focus primarily on delivering the educational materials and tools to volunteers so that the patients with whom the volunteers come into contact are not misled or fed false information regarding their status as patients, the process of procedures, or the strategies of physicians. Essentially, the study suggests that a balance needs to be maintained between volunteers and professionals so that each can administer separate doses, levels and kinds of assistance. And by educating volunteers on their role and what is expected of them, managers can build a sufficient platform of trust between themselves and volunteers, based on the fact that volunteers will feel prepared and knowledgeable of what is expected of them in the course of their activities.

The study by Hartel and O'Connor (2015) supports the findings of the preceding research in that it emphasizes the need for management to use Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the development of trust between management and volunteers. Hartel and O'Connor (2015) note in their qualitative analysis that "emotions are critical factors in the recruitment, retention, and well-being of volunteers" (p. 443). This finding indicates that a high degree of EI on the part of management can be most effective in the deployment of volunteers within the organizational framework. Because volunteers do not rely on payment as reward or compensation for their time and activity, the emotional compensation received from appreciative and understanding management leaders can be just as impactful as salary is for payroll employees. This study is helpful because it illustrates the fundamental way that management can address both the needs of the volunteer and the needs of the organization: that way, according to the researchers, is through the use of EI, which can be used in a transformational leadership approach to managing volunteers. By intelligently communicating to the emotions of volunteers, the manager can provide significant support to this group of workers, which in turn can provide a substantial support for the organization. It is a symbiotic relationship in this sense, one in which both the organization and the volunteers benefit as a result of a heightened state of EI on the part of management and a discernible appreciation of the emotional state of volunteers, who seek signs of appreciation for their efforts within the organization.

Waikayi, Fearon, Morris, McLaughlin (2012) conduct an exploratory case study in order to identify the reasons that volunteers have to serve as volunteers within the Red Cross. Their findings indicate that volunteers serve for a variety of reasons but that primary among them are self-satisfaction, importance of work to the community, and social interaction. With these motives in mind, management looking to attract volunteers should cultivate an environment that is friendly (social), accommodating (satisfactory), and beneficial to the community. Furthermore, it is advantageous for managers to "establish a friendly and positive attitude towards volunteers" as this serves to create a foundation of trust between management and volunteers (Waikayi et al., 2012, p. 349). Essentially, this study confirms the findings of Sanders (2006) in that likeability plays a fundamental role in establishing successful management-worker relations and in attaining organizational goals. The findings of Sanders (2006) are also helpful in understanding the relationship between management and workers within an organizational culture where volunteerism plays a part.

Sanders (2006) performs a qualitative and quantitative study of the role of likeability in managers and his findings suggest that the more likeable managers make themselves to employees, workers and volunteers, the more likely they are to be respected, admired, and followed. Sanders focuses on several real-life examples of how likeability is manifested in the workplace and draws upon research conducted in the field as well. He also defines likeability in a way that suggests it can be a driving force for managers looking to attract volunteers and build trust within the manager-volunteer relationship. For Sanders (2006) likeability is "the ability to create positive attitudes in other people through the delivery of emotional and physical benefits. Likable people give a sense of joy, happiness, relaxation, or rejuvenation. He or she can bring you relief from depression, anxiety, or boredom. The more likeable the person is the more likely he or she will be on the receiving end of a positive choice from which to obtain a benefit" (p. 33). Essentially, Sanders (2006) supports the argument of Samaan and Verneuil (2009) that a "spirit of mission" should serve as the basis of successful operations and interactions between management and volunteers. It is the foundation of vision that propels the organization and all its members (volunteers included) towards the collective aim of the organization and the community.

Likewise, Hoover (2003) shows how likeability is a galvanizing force in making good bosses better by how they manage the valued currency of trust with their subordinates. Though Hoover (2003) shares his frustrations with attempting to lead people who didn't see the value of his lessons being taught, he does show that all effort in the area of transformational leadership is valuable. To him there are no wasted minutes or hours managing and attempting to lead others, as both sides learn from the interchange (Hoover, 2003). His studies indicate that likeability is an accelerator of organizational change and that likeable managers can act to streamline the goal-oriented means of meeting objectives. In relation to volunteers, likeability can act as a kind of lubricant in the organizational engine, which is helpful when new "parts," i.e. volunteers, are added to the machinery. When managers make themselves likeable to volunteers, they create an atmosphere of congeniality that fosters a positive spirit within the organization and that can in turn support the overall motivation of volunteers and managers as they work together towards a common aim.

That the aim of the organization and the community should not be dissimilar underlies the finding of Samaan and Verneuil (2009) in their study of responses to Hurricane Katrina. They find that the most effective management strategy in any given context or situation is one in which a proper "spirit" is fostered among all members of the organization, in such a way that each member, whether leader, subordinate or volunteer, has the same agenda, same outlook, and same drive to achieve the same goals as those within the organization -- in other words, they all share the same "spirit of mission." Establishing this "spirit" in volunteers is one of the most effective ways that management can build the volunteer ranks within the organization, according to Samaan and Verneuil (2009). The "spirit of mission" (Samaan, Verneuil, 2009, p. 421), which may be understood as the ability to maintain consistent adherence to an organization/agency's mission statement, is an essential element of building the manager-volunteer relationship because it provides the focal point for both groups and posits them within the same team, giving the overall schema a legitimate goal for which to strive. Yet, maintenance of that mission depends on more than the organizational system that supports it. Just as belief and action affect and are affected by a "spirit of mission," organizations and agencies affect and are affected by a larger political, economical and social setting. Thus, it is essential that organizations foster this "spirit" so as to attract the volunteers that they are likely to need in the nonprofit sector. The study by Samaan and Verneuil (2009) is helpful in illustrating a rational and organizationally sound model of uniting management and volunteers.

Management by Distance: Latest Trends and Models

Nebus and Chai (2014) discuss in their ontological analysis of distance management models the importance of emphasizing "psychic distance" rather than physical "distance," which they assert has a more negative connotation when it comes to management by distance (p. 8). Their study focuses on the relevance of perception within new distance management models as well as understanding and awareness, which can be combined to articulate a new "multidimensional psychic distance construct" that "eliminates the constraint that distance is only associated with negative outcomes" (Nebus, Chai, 2014, p. 8). In short, eliminating the negativity associated with distance management is located not in the challenge of eliminating distance (via technology links) but in re-conceptualizing the psychic link between management and workers. Essentially, the model that Nebus and Chair propose is based on the "spirit of mission" identified by Samaan and Verneuil (2009), re-interpreted in a global scheme in which management by distance is constructed using this same spirit-oriented foundation.

Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, and Lange (2014) also discuss the psychic model/trend in management by distance as one that is effective in overcoming the "impediment" of management by distance (p. 38). Their study focuses on the different psychic stimuli that can be utilized by management in order to effect desired outcomes in workers. Their model stipulates that "complexity" only arises when the "nature of distance" is thought of primarily in physical terms. Physical distance, in other words, can be overcome by bridging the cultural distances that are concomitant with the physical or geographical/spatial distances. Psychic distance stimuli (PDS) can be used as a distance-eliminating model for managers by redressing the complexities normally associated with distance-management through cultural/psychic stimuli which increase the sense of connection in spite of distance and orient both managers and workers along the same mission lines.

Schomaker and Zaheer (2014) develop a model of distance management based on "the effects of language on knowledge transfer" (p. 55). Again, they employ same trend as Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, and Lange (2014) and Nebus and Chai (2014) by not focusing on the physical "distance" between management and workers but rather on the "commonalities" of the two groups. Specifically, Schomaker and Zaheer (2014) emphasize the aspect of language and linguistic similarities as a model for developing better management by distance. At the foundation of the model is found the basics of language -- grammar -- which serves as a framework. Absent from the model is any focus on interpretative meaning of words, which takes away from the overall aim. The model proposed is meant to supply management with a more objective take on language as a facilitator rather than as a separator (which is what it would be if a more subjective/interpretive take were supplied). The researchers test their model by way of conducting a survey among international operations managers. What the researchers find is similar to the psychic paradox, which is that language commonalities reveal and help to foster positive relationships but they also reveal a gap in "knowledge understanding" (a perceived negative). However, the gap is likely to be filled by the appreciation derived from the attempt to bridge the distance by means of establishing common ground.

Clearly the trend in management by distance models is showing a need to eliminate the concept of "distance" from the discourse of management using various means, whether a psychic reinterpretation of distance or language or spirit of mission as a binding mechanism to elevate groups out of the distance paradigm to a more transcendent level of interaction. These models are fundamentally theoretical in the abstract sense and supported by a psycho-social understanding of human interaction. Other models, however, take a more economical approach to the problem of management by distance and show how the issue is being addressed in other ways.

There is, for instance, the study by Gooris and Peeters (2014) that focuses on the Transaction Cost Economics approach in order to better understand the "comparative costs of the hierarchical and contractual models" and how they play a role in defining "dimensions of distance" (p. 73). The comparative models reveal that managers respond to different "uncertainties" and challenges in different ways, depending on whether they are internal problems or external problems. Internal problems are typically met by "leveraging the internal controls" of the organization, albeit from a distance; whereas external problems are typically met by pulling back from commitments made abroad and appealing to third parties for assistance in overcoming the obstacle (Gooris, Peeters, 2014, p. 73). The researchers also indicated that temporal distance is more impactful in the manager-worker relationship than spatial distance. This study is helpful because it highlights the various levers that are open to distance managers in terms of confronting challenges and staying on pace. It puts forward a more practical model of management rather than the theoretical models proposed by the preceding researchers.

Yildiz (2014) focuses on the trend of assumptions made relating to "the cultural distance construct" that persists in general among distance management models (p. 25). The study finds that these assumptions can lead to deceptive perceptions which do not reflect the actual circumstances or the reality of the conditions within the manager-worker relationship. Yildiz emphasizes the need for the usage of status theory in terms of devising new models of management by distance so as to better circumvent the false assumptions that give way to misleading narratives. Yildiz (2014) also suggests that simply by utilizing status theory, "inconsistent empirical results" can be reconciled and models that are "under-specified" can be avoided in future research (p. 25).

Similarly, Lu and Gao (2015) focus on the trend of disregarding "traditional management" modes and utilizing new strategies for bettering distance management (p. 1970). Their study emphasizes the need to utilize technology and network communications within the distance-eliminating environment of the Internet. Specifically, the researchers devise a multimedia-based model of interaction that is designed to lift groups out of their immediate surroundings to another plane of interaction and therefore of management. This model, the researchers suggest, "has incomparable advantages compared to traditional management modes" because it employs tools that have never before been available to distance managers and that, when utilized, can eliminate the main challenge in distance management -- which is, essentially, the problem of distance (Lu, Gao, 2015, p. 1970).

The theme of management by distance research today, therefore, is found in eliminating the concept of "distance" from distance management models. Harzing and Pudelko (2015) also focus on this trend in their qualitative analysis of conceptual distance models and entry mode choice, "one of the most researched fields in international business strategy." Their findings suggest that entry mode choice has little to do with actual distance rather than with limited sampling. What they advise is for researchers to focus on contextualization instead of the concept of distance, which acts as a divider rather than a bridge.

This promoted trend is similar to that of Shomaker and Zaheer (2014) and shows that management by distance models are being reconceptualized away from distance-shaping paradigms towards an altogether new perspective which focuses on reinterpreting the relationship by disregarding distance as a concept whatsoever. The result in this model of delegitimizing distance is that managers are able to focus more on the relationship rather than on "negatives" or problems associated with distance. The use of technology in overcoming practical communication problems faced by previous generations has also come a long way in eliminating distance from the equation so that managers can focus solely on the psychic aspects of new models, as Nebus and Chai (2014) illustrate.

Motivation: Payroll Employees vs. Volunteers

Laverie and McDonald (2007) approach volunteer motivation using identity theory and posit that the dedication of volunteers is primarily rooted in "organizational attachment, involvement, emotions, and identity importance" (p. 274). Their qualitative analysis provides support for the theory that volunteers who are devoted to a cause, event, or an organization often identify with the objectives or aims of the said cause, event, or organization. They in effect share a "spirit of mission" (Samaan, Verneuil, 2009), and that spirit is what serves as the motivating factor. This study is helpful in that it supports the findings of researchers who implicitly suggest that a "spirit of mission" is a fundamental part of motivating both employees and volunteers. Yet, the factors extend beyond simply engaging with a spirit of mission to actually being "attached" to an organization, which supports the finding of Maes (2012) as shall be shown later in this review.

Essentially, Laverie and McDonald (2007) find that there is a complex and dynamic base of volunteer motivations but that ultimately there is a need within the volunteer to both help and to identify with an activity or group of people. This need is both emotional and intellectual, but there are ramifications for volunteers entering into a relationship with an organization, which can be similar in terms of how an employee feels towards the organization that employees him or her: the worker identifies as being a part of the mission/group and therefore as one who should be compensated in some form or another. Again, Maes (2012) focuses especially on this hidden motivation of the volunteer.

Other researchers have contested that volunteerism is primarily the result of leisure time and that volunteers view their activity as a leisurely activity, as opposed to someone who must work the same event because of an obligation between a hirer and an employee (Greene, 2012). Greene states that the key difference between volunteers and employees is that employees may be charged with completing a task whereas volunteers are essentially there to "assist" (Greene, 2012, p. 113). Greene notes that whereas the employee is motivated by pay and job security, the volunteer is motivated by interest in the activity or area and is thus one whose return is rooted in a sense of "satisfaction, recognition and often knowledge and expertise as well" (Greene, 2012, p. 114). Greene's representation of the volunteer is basically general with an overall superficial examination of volunteer motivations serving to establish a managerial perspective rather than a scholarly or academic basis of understanding that can be used to shed new light on the volunteer-manager relationship.

Den, Deanne and Belschak (2012) assert that one of the most powerful aspects of transformational leadership is the ability to align the specific strengths and traits of a given worker to the needs of the broader, often virtual team. This individualized attention and focus on giving the worker (whether paid or volunteer) a chance to define their own identity through achievement and accomplishment is a very powerful aspect of transformational leader's ability to motivate over long periods of time (Den, Deanne, Belschak, 2012). Combining this with the EI skills to correctly interpret and respond to challenges in the team's progress gives transformational leaders respect and over time trust. It is then not what they know, but how they use their knowledge in the service and support of their teams that matter. The Den, Deanne, Belschak (2012) study provides quantitative data that corroborates the qualitative studies already mentioned and is thus helpful as further evidence of the motivational factors of volunteers vs. employees.

Makuwira and Haines (2014) find in their study of non-government development organizations that humanizing the workplace is an effective motivator for both volunteers and employees. By instilling human values and prioritizing the organizational culture around establishing habits of virtue, management can promote a positive spirit that acts as a successful motivating force. While such values are more commonly found as important among volunteers (Hartel, O'Connor, 2015), other researchers have noted that payroll employees respond positively to a culture that promotes virtue, trust, transparency, and humanity (Pink, 2011).

Pink (2011) shows that likeability in leaders motivates both employees and volunteers over the long-term by creating a culture that supports strong autonomy, mastery and purpose throughout their teams (Pink, 2011). However, when this likeability factor is missing, Pink's research identifies a serious lack of drive on the part of employees, which is directly related to their feeling of "connectedness" to management. If feeling connected is important to employees, it is also important to volunteers, though the drive for each stems from different motivational sources. For employees, for instance, the drive stems from a desire to fit in and be well-received by the organization -- in short, to make a positive impression in the workplace and on the hierarchy. Moreover, Pink (2011) has shown that 50% of employers are not "engaged" in their jobs and that 20% are "actively disengaged" as a result of having no connectedness to management (p. 109). So for payroll employees, motivation is not simply the pay that one receives; there is also the emotional connectedness that the employee wants to feel to management, just as the volunteer wants to feel for his or her services. In this regard, both payroll employees and volunteers are similar.

Lee (2012) notes in a recent study that what motivates volunteers depends upon the sector in which they are volunteering and what their own personal background is. In other words, it is a dynamic, complex force that drives individuals to volunteer. Nonetheless, certain motivators can be discerned. For instance, in nonprofit organizations, religious and social beliefs constitute a decisive factor for volunteers who "volunteer in religious and social/community organizations" (Lee, 2012, p. 104). Thus, recognizing local or community ideologies is likely to play a factor in how management can attract volunteers, as these ideologies are sure to be a motivator in volunteerism from every area. Lee's (2012) study concludes with a call for greater understanding of volunteer motivations, using "a more systematic and multifaceted approach" (p. 104). Such an approach would be beneficial because it would provide greater insight into the dynamic causes of volunteer motivation which can then be compared to payroll employee motivation.

Motivating employees, however, is a different study, as researchers note (Neckermann, Frey, 2013). Employees do not necessarily take jobs at the workplace out of ideological reasons or because of some social or community concern. Often jobs are merely a means to an end -- namely the provision of sustenance for one's self and family. The job is the tool by which the employee is able to support himself. For the volunteer, the job is the tool by which the volunteer is able to support the community. The difference is important. In the former, the motivation is self. In the latter, the motivation is the other. The employee gives in order to receive. The volunteer gives for the sake of giving.

Nonetheless, because human nature is still the same whether one is employed or volunteering, there is some common ground between the two in which motivators might overlap. For instance, in the area of employee motivation, the "power of employee awards" has shown to be a significant motivator (Neckermann, Frey, 2013). Neckermann and Frey (2013) find that "publicity has a substantial positive effect" in the attitudes and expressions of those who are recognized or put "in the limelight" for their generous spirit or hard work (p. 66). This study suggests that by publicly recognizing one's contribution to a group, team, organization or community, a spirit of good will (or rather a spirit of mission) can be fostered that the organization can then harness for greater success in its own endeavors.

Moreover, this finding corresponds with the study by Hartel and O'Connor (2015), which posits that volunteers appreciate being singled out and recognized for their contributions as well. Here is where some overlap may come into play regarding similarities between employee and volunteer motivation. Both, research indicates, like to be shown recognition and appreciation, even though their ultimate motivators may be completely different. On a superficial level, the motivation of being awarded or of receiving praise can be utilized by management in order to propel both volunteers and employees to greater acts of commitment, hard work, giving, etc.

Likewise, Gupta and Shaw (2014) indicate in their study that "employee compensation" is vital to employee motivation and that there needs to be more research on this aspect of human resources management. The researchers' findings support the findings of Lee (2012) and Neckermann and Frey (2013) in that they illustrate the need for some display from management towards the employees of appreciation and recognition. That display can come in the form of compensation (monetary) but it does not have to be simply in this way: it can also come about through awards, time off, promotion, greater responsibility, greater autonomy or independence, travel (or less depending on the situation), tickets to local events, etc. In short, compensation is an important part of thanksgiving that management can show to employees as a way to motivate them in the workplace. It lets them know that they are being watched and that their hard work will be rewarded.

In this same way, volunteerism is like an expression of thanksgiving to the community, only it comes from the volunteer rather than from the management side of the business relationship. In fact, as managers promote self-esteem by issuing awards (Neckermann, Frey, 2013), so too do volunteers convey self-esteem when they volunteer (Veerasamy, Sambasivan, Kumar, 2013). The relationship between self-esteem, volunteering, motivation, and employees is somewhat central to the notion of managers awarding hard work and publicly recognizing employees, because by awarding them it boosts self-esteem, and when self-esteem is high, individuals tend to give more (i.e., volunteer their time as a way of giving back and/or showing gratitude). In this sense, there is a clear "pay it forward" mentality that the literature suggests is universal among cultures. In order to promote volunteerism, managers can boost self-esteem or show thanksgiving, and this in turn creates a culture in which those who are thanked (who receive) want to give (to show their thanks for being thanked). This is the essence of the relationship, as suggested in the study by Veerasamy et al. (2013).