Operant conditioning principles and applications

Operant Conditioning/Behavior Modification

The idea of operant conditioning for humans was first developed by Burrhus Frederick Skinner, who looked at work using operant conditioning with animals. He concluded that using operant conditioning, or behavior modification, with humans was possible, and that all if all external factors were controlled, internal mental processes would not be a significant factor. He believed that all human behavior was shaped by the principles of operant conditioning: stimulus and response (Hutchinson, 2003).

Another way of talking about stimulus and response are to consider antecedent and consequent events -- what happens, and how the child responds to that event or events (Simpson, 1998). However, Skinner's pure approach of ignoring thought processes does not work with human beings.

For classroom, the assumption when using behavior modification is that the child is using maladaptive responses to cope with the events around him or her. Further, the assumption is that the child's behavior meets some specific need. Although the child's behavior may well be triggered by environmental events, the child's perceptions of those events as well as his or her thought processes play an important role in how the child responds. The behavior modification approach assumes that the child's maladaptive behaviors have been learned, and consequently, can be unlearned. Since that is the case, by carefully observing and measuring behaviors, as well as their antecedent events and other environmental factors, adults may be able to determine what triggers the unacceptable behavior. By changing the trigger, or stimulus, adults can cause a change in the child's response, or behavior. This requires careful evaluation and precise management of both stimulus and reward when a more desired response is given by the child. By rewarding the improved behavior, behavior modification can make it more likely that the child will use the newer, better behavior in the future.

Simpson (1998) specifies four steps to follow when using behavior modification in the classroom. The first step is to clearly identify the problem, including identifying the student; a description of the behavior to be changed; when the behavior is most likely to emerge, and the conditions under which the behavior occurs. The author used the example of inappropriate throwing objects. In a very precise description, throwing things during P.E. was excluded. That specific disclaimer points to the importance of noting when an unacceptable behavior occurs as well as the setting in which it occurs.

Simpson notes that behaviors do not appear randomly, and that some circumstances support the maladaptive behavior. In addition, while behaviors have a cause, the person giving the behavior may have little understanding regarding why he or she is acting in that way (Simpson, 1998). So, after identifying the behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs, the next step is to consider what purpose the behavior might serve for the child. Wandering around the room, if it results in being put in the hall, might serve for the child to avoid difficult schoolwork. If that is the case, then an evaluation of what the child is and is not ready to do academically has to be part of the behavior changing process. Simpson (1998) gives the example of a student who frequently left to go to the restroom or to see the nurse when he had to produce written work independently. His behavior served the purpose of helping him avoid work he found frustrating.

Once a likely hypothesis of why the student is using the behavior has been developed, a behavior modification intervention can be planned. This process involves controlling antecedent events, which should trigger a different, more acceptable behavior in the child, which can then be rewarded in some way. This would be a positive approach to changing behavior. Negative reinforcement, or providing negative consequences for the unacceptable behavior, is often less effective, because although it communicates that the behavior is undesired, the antecedent remains the same, and the child does not learn a different response to the situation. Sometimes a combination of positive reinforcement for the new behavior along with negative reinforcement for the old behavior can be effective.

Behavior modification can be used in the classroom in a variety of ways. Rewards can include tangible or edible rewards, enjoyable activities that are contingent on delivering the desired behavior, social reinforcements, and token economy systems.

An example of an edible reinforcement might be a raisin given for every 30-minute period where the child does not blurt out answers. A tangible reinforcement might be a token that can later be traded in for something desirable, such as a crayon. Tokens can also be used for the child to acquire desirable activities, such as game time or computer time. Simpson (1998) recommend that when edible reinforcements are used, they be paired with some kind of social reinforcements so that edible rewards can gradually be faded away.

Experts view social reinforcers to be the most important part of a behavior modification strategy. However, they emphasize that each child is a unique individual, and that reinforcers must be tailored to the child's preferences. Unlike rats in a box, human beings have strong preferences and opinions. If a teacher offers raisins as a reward to a child who dislikes raisins, that raisin will not reinforce no matter how many other students in the class respond well to it. These individual preferences must also be taken into consideration when offering any other kind of reinforcements (Simpson, 1998). The child who dislikes computers will not work hard to earn computer time.

Of all the approaches, the token economy system is one of the most complicated for classroom. Students may earn some kind of token, such as a poker chip, or points, which can accumulate over time to give the child "purchasing power" within the classroom. They can be complicated to use. Children sometimes steal tokens from each other or lose them, and different students will desire different rewards. However, since the children acquire the ability to choose a reward over time, the teacher has time to arrange a system that provides motivation for all students in the class. Some students might work hard to earn time playing one-on-one with the principal in the gym. Some children even like to assist the janitor. Some children might be willing to earn the privilege of reading a story to a kindergarten class. All of these approaches provide the opportunity to provide additional positive experiences for the student.