Operant Conditioning and Humanistic Perspective

Operant Conditioning and Humanistic Perspective

The process of learning has not ceased to attract both researchers and educational practitioners. However, due to the fact that learning is such a complex phenomenon, no theory of learning has been widely accepted (Uljens, 1992). The many facets of learning, that also affect the process of learning itself are age, gender, culture, subject, type of knowledge etc. In what concerns the paradigms that influenced the learning process and teaching practice there are three major trends: cognitivism, humanism and behaviorism.

The purpose of this paper is to focus on the ways humanistic and behaviorist principles impact education and learning situations in the classroom. Humanism stresses the importance of the individual (the stress is on individual freedom and autonomy) and starts from the assumptions that human nature is inherently good and individuals have an urge toward self-actualization; human potential for growth and development is unlimited. The general frame of behaviorism considers the process of learning in terms of stimulus-response. In Skinner's terms learning occurs as a result of the operant conditioning process: the acquisition of a behavior/information depends on the consequences experienced upon completion. The learner associates the action with the consequences following the action - for instance rewards reinforce and generalize the action / behavior, while punishments reduce / eliminate the response. There are three major consequences of responding in the process of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement (reward or positive event), negative reinforcement (when avoiding negative/aversive stimuli), punishment.

Operant conditioning is also called instrumental, because produces reward and at the same time, it has an effect on the environment - it shapes the environment so as to produce the desired consequences and avoid undesirable ones, and therefore is called operant.

A summarization of the key points regarding the two approaches is needed before proceeding to the illustration of a specific learning situation. A general contrasting framework that describes the characteristics of the two approaches to learning and education is given in the table below. The process of learning, the participants, the evaluation of learning, the representative figures of the two approaches, are taken into consideration. (adapted after Hiemstra R. & Brockett R., 1994)

HUMANISM

BEHAVIORISM

Learning how to learn

Acquiring knowledge

Learning as a process

Learning as an end product

Instruction as a process

Instruction broken into manageable parts

O - R (O = human organism)

R (human and animal organism)

Dynamic view

Mechanistic view

Perceptions

Observable behavior

Internal thoughts

Behavioral change

Maslow/Rogers

Skinner/Thorndike

Individual determines learning

Environment shapes learning

Personal control and evaluation

Imitating and observing others

Role of experience

Reinforcement/operant conditioning

Interactive needs assessment

Task analysis

Trainer

Process evaluation

Product evaluation

Goal free evaluation

Criterion/normative/goal referenced evaluation

Learner controlled verification

External testing

Affective learning

Cognitive/mechanistic/psychomotor learning

Self-directed learning

Expert directs learning/expert models

Crystallized intelligence

Fluid intelligence

Internal motivation

External motivation

Relative ends

Fixed ends

John Dewey (cited in Bell L., Schniedewind, N., 1989) acknowledged that the most important components in a democratic society are self-development and social development. He emphasized the child-centered curriculum that promoted personal development in cognitive, physical, emotional, spiritual and aesthetic domains. The goals of humanistic education emphasize the concern for the holistic development of the child, the centrality of learning through experience, focus on interpersonal interaction, and take into consideration the values of a fair and more humane society (Bell L., Schniedewind, N., 1989). An element that humanistic and operant conditioning education share is their focus on conscious mental processes, but the point of divergence appears when humanist education stresses the benefit of integrating emotions into the learning process. Moreover, unlike behaviorists, who take into consideration only the response to environmental stimuli, humanists see individuals as the source of their own actions, emphasizing free choice instead of determinism (self-aware and autonomous individuals (humanism) versus individuals that are conditioned by stimuli in their responses (behaviorism)) (Bell L., Schniedewind, N., 1989).

From a behaviorist perspective the process of learning is restricted to the idea that the transmission of information is the transmission of the appropriate response to a certain stimulus, in other words, individuals learn a repertoire of behavioral responses to certain stimuli. Learning is based on the process of reinforcement of the desired responses. In the classroom, the typical behaviorist teaching practice is based on a progressive introduction of tasks and sequence of information, consistent repetition of the material and continuous positive reinforcement.

For a clearer illustration of how humanism and operant conditioning impact classroom teaching the learning situation suggested is teaching vocabulary to high school students. Humanist education will be focused on Carl Rogers's assumptions about learning and education, while operant conditioning will be based upon Skinner's principles.

Although in teaching vocabulary, the word-learning strategies involve using dictionaries and other reference aids, knowledge assimilation about the word parts, and how to use context clues to determine word meanings, these strategies are given different values in humanistic and Skinnerian approaches.

The rogersian perspective on teaching

Teaching vocabulary to high school students involves for the humanistic teacher a deeper understanding of the degree to which vocabulary development impacts student achievement on the whole and is focused, in the first place in creating a climate of caring, respect and trust that will facilitate the attainment of the concrete learning objectives.

The rogersian assumptions on which the humanist teacher relies on are (Rogers, C, 1969):

1) Human beings have a natural potentiality for learning.

2) Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the student as having relevance for his own purposes.

3) Learning which involves a change in self-organization - in the perception of oneself - is threatening and tends to be resisted.

4) Those learning which are threatening to the self are more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.

5) When threats to the self are low, experience can be perceived in differentiated fashion and learning can proceed.

6) Much significant learning is acquired through doing.

7) Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process.

8) Self-initiated learning which involves the whole person of the learner - feelings as well as intellect - is the most lasting and pervasive.

9) Independence, creativity, and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic and evaluation by others is of secondary importance.

10) the most socially useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of learning, a continuing openness to experience and incorporation into oneself of the process of change.

In order to support these principles, the teacher may begin the lesson by soliciting personal information from the students relevant for the subject matter - vocabulary teaching that may include interests, favorite books etc. The students are therefore encouraged to agree upon choosing a certain book they should read and on which the discussions will be based. They are also encouraged to express emotions towards a certain book and to discuss and create emotionally charged contexts for the new words. A greater focus may be placed on the polisemy of words and students should be able to assimilate new words by integrating them in their own life contexts. Active participation and personalization of information is favored. By encouraging students to make decisions (i.e. chose a specific learning content - a book) and by taking into account their emotions, feelings and personal experiences a climate of trust is created that fosters creativity, independence, and self-reliance. This also leads to a greater openness towards self and other experiences, a principle Rogers highlighted among the most important ones for the learning process to occur. In such a manner, emotional and intellectual development is integrated, and a democratic, cooperative learning environment is created. The teacher works cooperatively with students to establish guidelines and to structure the learning experience. He is in the position to underline the advantages of using literature in developing vocabulary, to draw attention to difficult and special words and to create the learning environment that leads to the best learning experience. The teacher asks students carefully chosen questions that help students connect the new pieces of information with their own experience. This method has been called experiential learning. Students reflect on their personal experiences and are helped to name them and correlate them with the new concepts presented. The students will also learn how to communicate effectively, how to express feelings. Group work and teacher facilitation are important processes in humanistic education.

After the context for learning is set and the theme is chosen on a common agreement (a certain book is chosen), the students are encouraged to spot the new words and search for meaning (by using dictionaries or contextual information). New understanding is gained from correlating personal experience with the new words: a specific activity may be asking the students to use the words in sentences expressing emotions or using facts from their own experiences.

The instructional methods involved are open-ended questions, discussions, group activities, role playing, writing activities focused on the use of new words in personal experiences narratives.

The operant conditioning perspective on vocabulary teaching

From the point-of-view of operant conditioning a teaching vocabulary sequence relies on clearly established steps of information delivering and exercises. This technique is called shaping, as the teacher starts with information students already know and then new information is broken into small pieces.

In teaching vocabulary, the teacher is more likely to suggest or work with the textbook, and the setting of a democratic environment based on common agreement is not such an important fact as in the humanistic approach.

The lesson starts with a revision and review of the information taught in the previous class. The new lesson is introduced and after the new words are highlighted and identified the correct spelling is reinforced and the main focus is on the dictionary use. The students who answer correctly are given positive reinforcements such as verbal praise, good grades and other rewards (prizes, red points, pluses etc.). The teacher is mainly interested in fostering "the correct answer," he is concerned with observable behaviors he is able to test. Therefore, for a teacher that uses operant conditioning in teaching, exams and testing are very important. In teaching vocabulary operant conditioning is effective as students deal with structured material that needs to be memorized. A variety of exercises may be employed in order to offer practice and facilitate the memorizing of new words. In such a context, the student plays a more passive role. His emotions and personal experiences are not the focus of the learning process.