Organizational design principles and practices

Organizational Design change is an important aspect of any organization. All organizations undergo time of change. Having the ability to manage and organize such changes is vitally important. Managers must be proactive as it pertains to the manner in which they pursue design change. The purpose of this discussion is to define the process to produce organizational design change. Research will be conducted on the topic and a critical analysis will be made. In addition a conclusion and recommendations on the research completed will be provided.

Organizational design

The concept of organizational development first came about in the 1960s. According to Aken (2007) organizational development has been popular for many years amongst organizations in a broad range of industries. However, in recent years, there has been concern that the theories and concepts associated with organizational development are efficient enough to assist with the "Design science can be defined as the body of knowledge of a particular discipline on designs and design methods. A design can be viewed as a representation, a model of an entity to be realized and intended as an instruction for the next step in the creation process (van Aken, 2005b). An example of a design is a set of drawings for the construction of a machine or building. A design is a solution to a problem, but it is a special kind of solution. It is not a solution to a pure knowledge problem but a solution to a field problem (see also Trullen & Bartunek, 2007 [this issue]). A knowledge problem is a problem that arises from limitations in our knowledge of present reality; a field problem is a problem regarding the realization of a "better" reality (Aken 2007, 68) . "

The author further explains that the ability to solve a problem in the field necessitates not just the design of the solution but also the understanding of the designed solution in the physical or social world. With this understood design can be defined as the boundary between the inconsequential scope of rationalizing and cooperating on one hand and the scope of the pysical and social world on the other hand.

Aken (2007) also explains that the design science factors associated with an understanding of a particular discipline demands a credible knowledge concerning various types of solutions for the design. These solutions provide answers for problems that occur in the field and procedural knowledge concerning the process by which solutions for these problems can be designed. Designs are usually associated with structures, actions, systems or processes. Additionally, design methods denotes design roles, design processes, and in addition to more specific strategies for resolving certain kinds of design issues (Aken, 2007). The author also explains that there are two decisive attributes of design science. These attributes are concern for problems in the field and focusing on interventions or strategies associated with solving problems in the field. The author also explains that design is an extremely creative process that is natural. In fact all human beings use design on a daily basis to assist them through their lives and to solve problems.

With these things understood, the need for design within the context of certain situations becomes obvious. The research thus far indicates that the science of design can assist organizations in their efforts to solve complex problems that occur in the field. The ability to solve these problems is vitally important to ensuring that the goals of the organization are met in a manner that is efficient and timely.

Indeed, design can be used across a broad range of disciplines. One of the most popular uses for design is connected to organizational change. Organizational change occurs as a natural progression in any organizational environment. More specifically organizational change is associated with leading people on a different path than what they are accustomed to. Associated with business planning. There are three main driving forces - people, technology, and information ("Organizational Change")."

Organizational change can be difficult to implement because people are naturally resistant to change. According to Stanley et al. (2005) organizational change often creates cynicism amongst employees. The article explains that many organizations are attempting to deal with many different changes related to more chaotic social, economic and technological environments. As an aspect of confronting these issues organizations tend to rely heavily on their employees to conform to such changes in the workplace environment. However many employees resist such change. The authors point out that there are many reasons for the resistance displayed by some employees. The most significant of these reasons seems to be cynicism. In general, Cynicism is characterized by despair, irritation, and discouragement. In addition those who are cynical may experience feeling of contempt and distrust toward a person, group, philosophy, social principle, or the organization itself. In addition, organizational cynicism in particular is defined as "a negative attitude toward ones employing organizationcomprising cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions. More specifically, cynicism is "a belief that the organization lacks integrity" accompanied by feelings of "distress, disgust, and even shame" and contributing to "tendencies toward negative, and often disparaging behavior (Stanley et al., 2005)"

Rollag (2005) also explains the difficulty that can occur in organizations that are undergoing change. For the purposes of assisting students in understanding the difficulty associated with change management the BikeStuff Simulation was created. This simulation allowed students to actually experience the challenges that managers face in times of organizational change.

As a result of the resistance to change and the challenges that occur as a result of organizational change, the use of design science is incorporated into change management. According to Kikulis et al. (1995) that are certain patterns or processes associated with change in organizational design. The authors explains that such an approach is characterized by several ideals including drive, merging, re-creation, progress, and reorientation. The purpose behind this approach is the consistent nature of elements associated with the structure of the organization and systems that must be taken into consideration when attempting to fully comprehend the foundation of changes that are occurring within an organization. In addition archetypal organizational designs are made coherent or fluid by principles and standards that form dominant notions of what an organization should be engaged in. Such a design also reflect how the organization should be performing and how it is evaluated. The author further explains that certain design patterns associated with change that are identified as "reorientation, re-creation and revolution" are related to are concerned with attempts to transition from one kind of design model to another design. This transition is associated with all encompassing changes in values, systems and structures.

In addition to the variations in patterns as it pertains to archetypal change, there are also theories concerning the "extent to which organizational change is likely to take place in some elements of structure and systems rather than others. In short, whether there are some aspects of organizational structure and operation that are more susceptible or resistant to change. Some organizational elements may be particularly difficult to change because they embody deeply held values, yet it may be these specifically that need changing in order to signal the purpose and seriousness of change (Kanter,

1984; Schein, 1985). This is the idea of high impact systems (Kikulis et al.

(1995) ."

In this passage the authors explain the complex issues that arise when attempts to undergo change are present. It seems that some of the deeply held values of an organization can be the greatest impediment to change. However it is also apparent that organizations must find a way to confront this impediment before they will be able to implement any type of meaningful change. The authors do not expand on why deeply held values are so important to employees. However, it could be assumed the employees become attached to the principles of the organization that they serve. As such when changes occur related to the values of an organization individuals have difficulty accepting such changes.

There are several theories associated with organizational design change. One of the most prominent of these theories is contingency theory. This theory is also called structural contingency theory. Structural contingency theory is defined as "a fit between the organization's structure, its size, its technology, and the requirements of its environment ("Organizational Theory: Determinants of Structure") ."

Although many organizations believe that this theory is a sound approach for organizational design, there are some experts that believe the contrary is true. For instance,

"A challenge is that structural contingency theory is static and fails to deal with organizational change and adaptation (Galunic and Eisenhardt, 1994). It is true to say the heart of structural contingency theory is statics, in the sense that it deals with how a static state of fit between structure and contingency causes high performance (e.g.. Woodward, 1965). However, structural contingency theory writings are within a functionalist tradition of social science (Merton, 1968) that sees organizations as adapting to their changing environments (Parsons, 1961).

Therefore, organizations change from one fit to another over time (Donaldson)."

To be more precise, the authors explain that there is a procedure that has been created as an aspect of the theoretical model of Structural Adaptation to Regain Fit (SARFIT) (Donaldson). This model asserts that when an organization in fit experiences improved performance that results it results in excess resources and leads to growth in size, geographic expansion, innovation or diversification. This in turn increases the number of contingency variables. This results in a "misfit with the existing structure. Themisfit lowers performance, eventually leading to a performance crisis and adaptive structural change into fit (Donaldson)."

There is also a specific process associated with organizational design. This process has different stages associated with the varying levels in the organization. As a result of this process the appropriate interventions take place to alter the processes, behavior values of both groups and individuals. There are a total of eight stages in the organizational design process. These stages are as follows:

Process Analysis Activities- pertains to the implementation of behavioral science perspectives to understand dynamic situations ("Organization Design and Change). Organizations utilize this as an aspect of organizational design so that they will have an effective way of solving problems when they arise during the change process.

Skill-building Activities-, associated with different designs for the purposes of provoking that are reflective of Organizational design standard ("Organization Design and Change) s. This phase is inclusive of the practice of listening, giving and receiving feedback, and conflict resolution ("Organization Design and Change). This phase is necessary because it ensures that all members of the organization understand the nature of the change and the behavior that Is expected of them during the change. This also ensures that the implementation of change will occur with less turmoil.

Diagnostic Activities- this includes process analysis to produce information via interviews, psychological instruments or opinion surveys ("Organization Design and Change). Diagnostic activities are essential to discovering the manner in which people associated with the organization are feeling about the change occurring. Having access to such information assist in designing a system that will meet the needs of the organization while still having the capacity to address the concerns of employees and managers.

Coaching or Counseling Activities -- the purpose of this phase it to assist employees with conflict resolution through the use of third-party consultation ("Organization Design and Change). Whenever there are groups of people from diverse backgrounds working together there is bound to be some type of conflict that arises. Conflict resolution is essential because it allows employees to work out their problems. Having a workplace that is free of conflict enhances productivity and increases job satisfaction. Both of these factors are essential to ensuring that change can occur in an organization in a manner that is rapid and effectual.

Team Building Activities-this is designed to improve the competence and of task group s ("Organization Design and Change). Team building exercises are vitally important as it pertains to organizational design because they build confidence in the individual team members and in the team as a unit. The building of confidence is essential in an environment that thrive on team work. Teams must know how to work together to get the goals of the company accomplished.

Inter-group Activities -- the purpose of this is to develop effective and satisfying linkages between two or more task groups or departments in the organization ("Organization Design and Change). This stage is needed to ensure that the goals of the company can be realized across a range of departments and groups. An organization will need to maintain synergy between employees working in all parts of the organization. Failure to do will make it impossible to implement change effectively .