Errorless teaching and social skill transfer in autistic students

Errorless Teaching Results
The data collected in this action research study was used to determine the utility of the Errorless Teaching method for teachers of high functioning autistic students. The reason for this action research was that it is important for teachers to have access to as much evidence as possible, because the more aware they are with regard to what methods work with what students, the more options they will have to facilitate the educative process. The data discussed here shows the degree to which social skills taught using the Errorless Teaching Method (ETM) and mastered in isolation transfer to the natural environment with no prompting.
At the onset of the first week of the data collection period (January 2nd), students received teaching in the social skill of initiating a conversation with peers. The study started by observing two high functioning autistic 4th grade students twice per week in their physical education classes at a school in New Jersey. Data was obtained from the start by observing the students and recording their behaviors in terms of whether they applied the skills they were taught through Errorless Teaching without being prompted. No baseline measurement, pre-test or post-test was conducted. All data was obtained by way of direct observation only.
Hypothesis Research Questions Research question #1 is: Can students who have mastered specific social skills initiate a social conversation with peers using an errorless teaching model independently?

Research question #2 is: Can students who have mastered specific social skills initiate a conversation with adults and ask for materials, directors, or instructions using an errorless teaching model independently?
It was hypothesized that students who have mastered specific social skills (initiating a social conversation with peers and with adults) using an errorless teaching model will independently use these skills with peers and adults within a general education physical education classroom without prompting. Analysis of Data Data on Max’s Social Acquisition Skill with Peers
In Figure 1 is the data observation sheet, with the Program, Prompt Hierarchy and Target for the student “Max.” The sheet shows the dates of the observations, the number of opportunities for the student to implement the program without prompting, and the positive percentage rate at the end of the day of observing. The percentage rate for the first and second month is shown in line graphs in Graphs 1 and 2.

Figure 1
First set of data

Program:

Social conversation with peers

Prompt Hierarchy:

Independent/Physical prompt
Target:

Students initiate a social conversation with peers.

A + was recorded for each opportunity that Max took without prompting. A – was recorded for each opportunity that Max did not attempt without prompting to use the social skills he had been taught.
Overall the data shows that Max improved to 100% at the end of the trial period.
Graph 1
First Half of the Trial for Max.


Graph 2
Second Half of the Trial for Max.


By the end of both the first and the second month, Max was using the learned social skill of starting a conversation and requesting materials from the teacher without prompting 100% of the time. Max started off the second half of the month with a much higher frequency of using the learned social skill without prompting than he did the first month, indicating that he was learning quickly how to use the skill on his own once shown.

Data on Jack’s Social Acquisition Skills with Peers
The data chart in Figure 2 is the same as in Figure 1 except that this data is for “Jack,” the second student observed for this study. It describes the same program, the same prompt hierarchy, and the same target. Again the positive percentage rate is given at the end of each day of observation. Graphs 3 and 4 show a line graph for each of the two months of observation.

Figure 2
Second set of data

Program:

Social conversation with peers

Prompt Hierarchy:

Independent/Physical prompt
Target:

Students initiate a social conversation with peers.

A + was recorded for each opportunity that Jack took without prompting. A – was recorded for each opportunity that Jack did not attempt without prompting to use the social skills he had been taught.
Overall the data shows that Jack improved to 100% by the end of the trial period.
Graph 3
First Half of the Trial for Jack


Graph 4
Second Half of the Trial for Jack.


By the end of the second month, Jack was using the learned social skill of starting a conversation and requesting materials from the teacher without prompting 100% of the time. Like Max, he also showed improvement at the start of the second month in terms of using the learned social skill on his own without prompting once shown how to use it. His initial start for the second month was not as high as Max’s, however, but by the end of the second month it was. He did not reach full mastery by the end of the first month, but he did by the end of the second month.
Data on Max’s Social Acquisition Skill with Adults
In Figure 3 is the data observation sheet, with the Program, Prompt Hierarchy and Target for the student “Max.” The sheet shows the dates of the observations, the number of opportunities for the student to implement the program without prompting, and the positive percentage rate at the end of the day of observing. The percentage rate for the first and second month is shown in line graphs in Graphs 1 and 2. This observation was cut short because of the outbreak of coronavirus and the school shutting down in mid-March.

Figure 3
Third set of data

Program:

Social conversation with adults
Prompt Hierarchy:

Independent/Physical prompt
Target:

Students ask adults for materials, directors, or instructions.

A + was recorded for each opportunity that Max took without prompting. A – was recorded for each opportunity that Max did not attempt without prompting to use the social skills he had been taught.
Overall the data shows that Max improved his percentage rate and based on earlier observations he likely would have attained to 100% by the end of the trial period had the trial not be cut short because of a virus outbreak that closed schools. Graph 5 below shows the percentage improvement.
Graph 5
First Three Sessions of the Trial for Max


Graph 5 indicates that improvement was made in using the social skills with adults after just three trial sessions. Based on this trajectory, it is likely a 100% success rate would have been achieved over the course of one month.
Data on Jack’s Social Acquisition Skills with Adults
The data chart in Figure 4 is the same as in Figure 3 except that this data is for “Jack,” the second student observed for this study. It describes the same program, the same prompt hierarchy, and the same target. Again the positive percentage rate is given at the end of each day of observation. Graph 6 shows a line graph for the dates of observation. Again, the trial was cut short with “Jack” because of the coronavirus outbreak.
Figure 4
Fourth Set of Data

Program:

Social conversation with

Prompt Hierarchy:

Independent/Physical prompt
Target:

Students ask adults for materials, directors or instructions.

A + was recorded for each opportunity that Jack took without prompting. A – was recorded for each opportunity that Jack did not attempt without prompting to use the social skills he had been taught.
Overall the data shows that Jack improved his percentage rate substantially, more than doubly his success rate in just three sessions, and based on earlier observations he likely would have attained to 100% by the end of the trial period had the trial not be cut short because of a virus outbreak that closed schools. Graph 6 below shows the percentage improvement.
Graph 6
First Three Sessions of the Trial for Jack

Graph 5 indicates that significant improvement was made in using the social skills with adults after just three trial sessions. Based on this trajectory, it is likely 100% success rate would have been achieved over the course of one month had the virus outbreak not cut short the trial.
Chapter V
Discussion
The purpose of this action research study was to provide confirmation that Errorless Teaching is a suitable method for teaching high functioning autistic students.
This study was important because to this date it has been unclear whether Errorless Teaching can facilitate the transference of skills into the natural environment without prompting from the teacher. By having this evidence, teachers can have more options to consider when developing their approaches to educating high functioning autistic students.
The study took place over the course of two months from January 2nd to March 2nd, 2020. The study was conducted at a 4th-grade physical education classroom in a West New York, New Jersey Public school. The study focused on evaluating two high functioning ASD students’ behavior in a general education classroom when taught by the Errorless Teaching model and when interacting with their peers during social time. Using direct observation, the researcher observed whether the students implemented the social skill (starting a conversation) that they learned through Errorless Teaching without prompted to do so by a teacher.
The study began with a 20 minute observation of Max on Monday, January 2nd followed by Jack for 20 minutes. Both students were observed during physical education class, twice per week. During these observations the teacher identified opportunities for the target students to initiate a social conversation with peers. A data collection sheet was used and a + or – was recorded to indicate whether the student succeeded in initiating a social conversation or failed to do so without prompting. Each student was afforded anywhere from 10 to 14 opportunities per session to initiate a social conversation with a peer. This thus afforded a high degree of opportunities to assess whether the learning was using the skills taught through Errorless Teaching in the natural environment. Interpretation of the Findings and Discussion Research Question 1
Can high functioning elementary school aged students with autism use learned social skills via ETM in the natural environment without requiring prompting?
The results showed that high functioning elementary school aged students with autism can use learned social skills via ETM in the natural environment without requiring prompting. At the end of two months’ observations, both students had a 100% success rate in terms of implementing the learned social skill in the natural environment, requiring no prompting from the teacher.
The study showed that ETM is a viable approach that teachers should consider when helping autistic students implement learned skills without prompting. The evidence was gathered over the course of two months with several dozen opportunities provided to each student over that course of time to demonstrate the effect of ETM on behavior. The results were very positive in that they showed a 100% success rate after 2 months for one student and a 100% success rate for the other student after just one month of ETM. This evidence suggests, therefore, that teachers should consider this approach when deciding on a teaching method for autistic learners.
One of the most notable aspects of the findings was that the students appeared to do better with implementing the learned skills independently without prompting over time, which indicates that there was a cognitive shift at some point. The student became more and more familiar with recognizing the opportunity to implement the skill and then began establishing a habit of doing it on his own.
On average, the series of repetitions was about a month before the student was at least hitting a success rate of 90%. This showed a marked improvement overall, as the students started out at a lower percent rate of success. One student started out with a success rate near 40% and the other was a bit higher at 60%--but both showed marked improvement over time.
This improvement may be a result of the repetitious nature of the opportunities being presented, or it may be a combination of the opportunities presented with the ETM facilitating the implantation of the learned skills in the student’s mind. At this point it is unknown as to what degree the repetitions of opportunities to implement the learned skill played in the overall improvement of the success rate. It is also unknown if other factors played a part in that improvement, such as peer responses, encouragement from other students, or reinforcement from the teacher. It would be helpful to have more insight in this matter and future research should likely focus on the extent to which other variables play a part in the student’s development when the teacher is implementing ETM.
Research Question #2
Can students who have mastered specific social skills initiate a conversation with adults and ask for materials, directors or instructions using an errorless teaching model independently?
This portion of the trial was cut short but observations clearly indicated an immense shift from imperfection to perfection over just three sessions and both students based on trajectory and past observations likely would have hit 100% success rate by the end of the month.
Overall, the findings indicate a strong trend, nonetheless, which suggests that regardless of other variables (however constant on inconstant) both students improved over time under the teacher’s ETM application. This suggests that ETM does have beneficial value for the learner and the teacher should view it with approval and with confidence knowing that the evidence from outcomes with these two students appears to support its usage. Limitations of the Study The fact that no baseline measurement of the two students’ behaviors was taken may be a limitation. A pre-test of their social skills might have been helpful in determining where the students were socially speaking. Thus, not having this information could impact the validity of the study’s results. However, the study did focus exclusively on the precise skills that the teacher taught through Errorless Teaching—so in terms of whether the study measured what it purported to measure it can be said to be valid.
Another limitation was the issue of time constraint. Because it was not possible to observe the students for an extended period of time throughout the week, the manner in which the efficacy of the Errorless Teaching method was observed was somewhat constrained. Thus Time was a limitation, as the environment became somewhat contrived in order to allow for observation of the student’s ability to implement the skills without prompting. Nonetheless, the observations did show an increasing ability among the students to implement their learned skills without prompting, which suggests the contrived nature of the environment may have been more perceptual on the researcher’s part than actual.
The study was also limited by the sample size. Essentially a case study, the researcher used only two students with high functioning autism in the 4th grade in New Jersey. The generalizeability of the findings must therefore be questioned as it is unclear whether the data can be applied to the larger population of autistic students across the nation. More research with a larger sample would be required for that.
Finally, the study was limited by the outbreak of the coronavirus, which shut down the school and cut the trial short for observations of students using social skills unprompted with adults. Future Directions of Research What I learned from doing this study is that teaching methods should be based on evidence-based practices. The evidence obtained from this action research showed me that ETM is a viable approach in teaching practice and I would incorporate it into my own practice based on the findings herein. This research also inspired me to learn more about ETM as well as other methods like it, as I am interested in exploring this concept in more detail and seeing at what ages it is most effective.
Summary
This study worked well, and what I would have done differently had I been afforded more time and opportunity would have been to increase the sample size and expand it across multiple grade levels and multiple schools. I also would have analyzed the intervention from the standpoint of other factors as well, such as gender, age, race, socio-economic status, home, and degree of autism.
This study has shown that ETM can be an effective way to teach students with autism, and it has changed me as a teacher in the sense that I have a deeper appreciation for action research. I see from this experience that getting in the field and making observations is an essential part of advancing research and improving as a teacher. Practice has to be based on evidence in order to be validated. This action research has given me a deeper sense of and appreciation for that fact.

References Barnard-Brak, L., Ivey-Hatz, J., Ward, A. K., & Wei, T. (2014). Self-regulation and social interaction skills among children with autism across time. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities, 8(4), 271-279. Retrieved from doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.wpunj.edu/10.1108/A Bloh, C., Scagliotti, C., Baugh, S., Sheenan, M., Silas, S., &Zulli, N. (2017). Using Errorless Teaching to Teach Generalized Manding for Information Using “How?”. The Journal of Special Education Apprenticeship, 6(1), 4. Boutut, E.A. & Hume, K. (2012). Beyond Time Out and Table Time: Today’s Applied Behavior Analysis for Students with Autism. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 47(1), 23-38. Callahan, K. & Shukla-Mehta, S. (2010). ABA versus TEACHH: The case for defining and validating comprehensive treatment models in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(1), 74-88. Foxx, R. (2008). Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment of Autism: The State of the Art. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17(4), 821-834. Marshall, B., Cardon, P., Poddar, A., & Fontenot, R. (2013). Does sample size matter in qualitative research?: A review of qualitative interviews in IS research. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 54(1), 11-22. Miller, U. C., & Test, D. W. (1989). A comparison of constant time delay and most-to-least prompting in teaching laundry skills to students with moderate retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 363-370. Mills, G. E. (2018). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher (Sixth edition.). Boston.: Pearson. Mueller, M. M., Palkovic, C. M., & Maynard, C. S. (2007). Errorless learning: Review and practical application for teaching children with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7), 691-700. NIH. (2016). Autism Spectrum Disorder: Communication Problems in Children. Retrieved from https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/autism-spectrum-disorder-communication-problems-children Noonan, M.J. & McCormick, L. (2014). Teaching Young Children with Disabilities in Natural Environments. Teaching young children with disabilities in natural environments (2nd ed., pp.205-231). Pratt, C. (2011). Applied behavior analysis: a focus on outcomes. The Reporter 16(1). Retrieved fromhttps://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/handle/2022/13402 Schreibman et al. (2015). Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions: Empirically Validated Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorder, 45, 2411-2428. The Scott Center. (2018). Errorless learning: ABA skills explained. Retrieved from https://www.thescottcenter.org/blog/errorless-learning-aba-skills-explained Weiss, M.J. (2014). Expanding ABA Intervention in Intensive Programs for Children with Autism: The Inclusion of Natural Environment Training and Fluency Based Instruction. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2(3), 182-186. Weiss, M.J. (2014). Comprehensive ABA Programs: Integrating and Evaluating the Implementation of Varied Instructional Approaches. The Behavior Analyst Today, 6(4), 249-256. Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., ... & Schultz, T. R. (2015). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive review. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 45(7), 1951-1966.