Special Education Programs Abound Throughout

Special education programs abound throughout the United States. Such programs are needed and beneficial for many students that have problems remaining in general education classrooms. However, over the last few decades African-American males have represented a disproportionate amount of special education students. This overrepresentation has real-world consequences for these students and the communities in which they live.

Traditional notions of education have been questioned as it relates to the ability of traditional curriculum to embrace cultural norms of minority groups. That is, many educators have asserted that some minority students learn in ways that are completely different from those of the majority and as such curriculums should reflect these differences. When curriculums fail to embrace these differences students are mislabeled and do not receive the proper education.

Additionally stereotypes play a significant role in determining how Black males are treated in academic setting. In some instance African-American males are perceived as treats to society and when behavioral issues arise, instead of confronting the behavioral problems appropriately African-American males are placed in special education programs.

Review of current literature

Moore et al. (2008) explains that in many public schools throughout the country African-American Male students are not receiving the education needed to thrive and survive in the world and the workplace. The authors also explain that this particular population has difficulty succeeding because they are often labeled at risk (Bailey, 2003; Bailey & Moore, 2004; Farmer et al., 2004; Moore et al. 2008). The authors explains that through the academic career of African-American males including elementary, secondary, and postsecondary education levels Black males are not on par with their African-American males academically. They are also less successful that Black females academically (Jackson & Moore, 2006; J.L. Moore, Flowers, Guion, Zhang, & Staten, 2004; Moore et al., 2008).

According to Fenning and Rose (2007) for more than three decades researcehers have studied the phenomenon of the over representation of African-American males in special education classrooms. Many of these studies have focused on the discipline consequences of such placements as it pertains to expulsion and suspension.

The researchers contend that one of the primary reasons for disproportionate representation among African-American males "is that school personnel perceive such individuals as

"not fitting into the norm of the school" (Casella, 2003). Coupled with an anxiety

on the part of school personnel that they must always be in control of student behavior (Domenico, 1998; Noguera, 1995), those who are not perceived as fitting the social and behavioral norms of the school are subsequently labeled as

"dangerous" (Casella, 2003) or as "troublemakers" (Bowditch, 1993). Once

labeled in this manner, these identified groups of students (who are primarily poor ethnic minority students and those with academic problems) are removed primarily for nonviolent infractions found in the school discipline policy (Skiba et al., 2000)."

The authors further insists that many educators have simply lost control of their classrooms as opposed to these students actually posing any really threat. Indeed it appears that the most vulnerable students are placed in the position of being placed in exclusionary education situations and its related disciplinary outcomes. The author also explains that minority students are often the target of fear and anxiety and as such they are more likely to have to endure certain punitive disciplinary consequences. These consequences occur because there is a perceived threat associated with children who do not seem to fit into what is considered the norm of the school. These norms can be associated with academics, race, and socio-economic differences. Once students have been place in special education programs they are more likely to enter into the prison system. This is often referred to the school to prison pipeline (Wald & Losen, 2003).

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to examine the overrepresentation of African-American Males in Special education classrooms. The investigation will examine the reasons why such overrepresentation exist and the manner in which traditional racist ideologies play a role in informing the current educational system. The research will focus on how such overrepresentation can be detrimental to this particular group of students over the long-term.

Need for the study

The research to be conducted is needed to determine the causes of overrepresentation. Once the reasons for the disproportionate number of African-American males in special education are more fully understood, steps can be taken to ensure that the overrepresentation is decreased. This particular study will be particularly useful because there are significant numbers of African-American males that do not gradate from high school. A great deal of this may be attributed to the greater likelihood of Black males being placed in special education classrooms. As our review of the current literature has revealed, once a child has been placed in special education there are labeled as such for their entire academic career. This means that students that were mislabeled are placed in classrooms that do not challenge their intellect. Ultimately they may become frustrated and drop out of school. As such a concerted effort needs to be made to not only identify the reasons for overrepresentation, but also to ensure that such overrepresentation does not continue to occur. A decline in the proportion of African-American males in special education will lead to higher rates of high school graduation and fewer incarcerations.

Statement of the problem

Special education classrooms are necessary because they assist students that have needs that are substantially different from general education students. As such, when students that should be in general education are placed in Special Education their educational needs are not met. This leads to disciplinary problems because the misplaced student is not engaged in the educational activities that are presented. Disengagement can lead to disinterest in school and ultimately many students who are misplaced in special education programs drop out of school completely.

With all these things understood, overrepresentation in Special education is particularly detrimental to minority populations. More specifically African-American males suffer greatly when they are mislabeled in this manner because of the historic and current inequalities associated with being a Black man in American society. Overrepresentation leads to other social problems that are difficult to overcome and affect society in adverse ways.

Research Questions

The research questions for this study are as follows:

Why does the overrepresentation of African-American males occur in so often in public schools?

In what ways if any does overrepresentation in special education classrooms effect disciplinary outcomes for African-American males?

In what ways if any does overrepresentation in special education classrooms contribute to high drop out rates for African-American males.

What policies can schools develop to ensure that African-American males are not placed in special education classrooms for reasons that are inconsistent with the stated purpose of special education?

Key Terms

Exclusion

General Education

Inclusion

Overrepresentation

Special Education

Chapter Two

Review of the Literature

Introduction

The study to ensue is designed to address the problem of overrepresentation of African-American males in special education classrooms. The research will focus on why such overrepresentation occurs, how it effects disciplinary and academic outcomes for African-American males and what can be done to minimize this overrepresentation at te current time and in the future. The research provided in the literature review will cover a significant time span and it is designed to address many of the concerns that have developed since this issue was first addressed decades ago. The research for the literature review will be taken from books, journals, newspapers and magazines.

Review of literature

Special Education

According to Harry and Anderson (1993) Special education programs were first placed in publics schools as a result of a 1975 federal mandate (Harry & Anderson, 1994). This mandate developed as a result of the Education for all children Act which was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Harry & Anderson, 1994). The initial intention of the act was to provide students that did not have the ability to benefit form regular curriculums the opportunity to receive an education (Harry & Anderson, 1994). The law was designed to allow all school-aged children in America the opportunity to attend school and receive a free education through the public school system. However problems quickly serviced and the misuse of the law became apparent (Harry & Anderson, 1994).

Overrepresentation of African-American Males in Special Education

According to Minority Students in Special and Gifted Education most of the concern about the overrepresentation of some minority groups in special education classroom usually focuses on a limited number of disability categories. For instance, in a National Research Council report published in 1982 the primary focus was on special education students that were identified as mildly mentally retarded. However the category that has been the center of much debate and even the subject of litigation is "the fairness of intelligence testing as the "reason" behind disproportionately high enrollments of black and Hispanic children in special education programs (Reschly, 1988a). In the years since that report, the focus has broadened to include LD and ED. Concern has been raised as well over the underrepresentation of children from these same minority groups in programs for the gifted and talented (Minority Students in Special and Gifted Education, 2002, 36)."

According to Patton (1998) the overrepresentation of African-American children in special education programs that are intended for students that have serious emotional or behavioral disorders, learning disabilities, and mental disabilities has continued to be a problem even though many researchers have recognized the problems that have occurred as a result of such overrepresentation. In fact there is exhaustive amounts of literature that explains the "causal factors that range from failure of the general education system (Artiles & Trent, 1994; Deno, 1970; MacMillan & Hendrick, 1993; McDermott, 1987; Townsend, Thomas, Witty, & Lee, 1996) to inequities associated with the special education referral, assessment, and placement processes (Harry & Anderson, 1994; Mercer, 1973)."

With all these things understood, the problematic issue of overrepresentation of African-Americans in special education continues even after the causes of such overrepresentation have been found and accepted as accurate. For instance, research over the years has found that in spite of all the research and recommendations concerning this problem, the proportion of African-American students labeled as mentally disabled has "not changed much from 38% in 1975 when those students constituted 15% of the school population. In 1991 they made up 16% of this nation's school population and 35% of the special education population (Harry & Anderson, 1994)." Additionally the overrepresentation of African-American males in particular has also been thoroughly noted as it pertains to disciplinary practices (corporal punishment and suspension) and the fact that with the context of certain special education categories black students receive their special education in segregated classrooms or in buildings that are completed separated from an inclusive setting (Harry & Anderson, 1994).

Causes of Overrepresentation

Fitzgerald (2006) explains that the overrepresentation of Black males in Special education has much to do with racism and the need to control a population that is often viewed as a threat. The author explains that there is a systematic effort to control and punish black male students who attend public schools in America. He asserts that this system is the byproduct of the ideologies embraced during slavery (Feagin 2000; Hutchinson 1994). The author first posits that since White men who controlled the American school system believed that Black males were a threat to them both physically and sexually. In addition these individuals created myths and manipulated stereotypes to justify the need for social control (Cose 2002; Feagin 2000; Hutchinson 1994;Fitzgerald (2006).

Other researchers have also asserted that racism has played a significant role in the overrepresentation of black males in Special education. According to Watkins and Kurtz

"The issue of discrimination by White teachers with African-American students is a significant problem. For example, Irvine (1990 ) found that white teachers have more negative expectations for African-American students than for white students.

An analysis of large urban school districts as the proportion of African-American

teachers in a school district, proportion of African-American students assigned to special education classes, suspended or expelled decreased (Watkins & Kurtz,

2001, 2)."

Watkins & Kurtz (2001) further asserts that an article in the March 3, 2001, issue of the Chicago Tribtme cited a study conducted by the Illinois Department of Education in 1997 that found African-American students to be 2.9 times more likely to be identified as having a disability than their White peers. Those who criticize the practice of labeling black students in this manner assert that the experts that were so interested in equality for all students were actually instrumental in the promotion of the inequality that currently exist. At the current time special education has been used in a manner that is abusive and has effectively created segregation within the American public school system. The author explains that "The practice of labeling these students and segregating them academically from the regular education population underlies these inequities (Barton and Tomlinson

1984). Thus, public school education sharply diverges from Hiner's (1990) vision of education as "...the entire process by which human beings develop a sense of self and formulate an identity; learn the ways of society so that they may function within

it; and define and transmit their culture from generation to generation" (p. 138)"

Impact of overrepresentation on African-American Males

There are dire consequences associated with the overrepresentation of Blcak males in special education classrooms. Harry & Anderson, (1994)explain that the descriptions associated with the socio-cultural construction of the classifications of learning disability, mild mental disability,, and serious emotional or behavioral disability (SED) are associated with definitional and validity problems. These problems are associated with severe negative consequences for African-American students. For instance, Ysseldyke, Algozzine, and Thurlow (1992) discovered that the random changes in diagnostic criteria and frequency rates for the SED label combined with the extreme variability in placement rates across the schools in different states calls into question the rationality of the SED label. The article explains that "these concerns and the attendant cultural variability of student behavior and teacher judgment place African-American youth at great risk of being falsely labeled as SED. Similar arguments have been made for the educable mentally retarded (EMR) and specific learning disability (SLD) categories (Harry & Anderson, 1994)." Such labels impair the ability of African-American males to succeed in academic settings for the rest of their lives.

Efforts to Reduce Overrepresentation

Cherryl (2003) explains that since the initial survey concerning the overrepresentation of African-Americans in special education programs appeared in 1968 there has been a great deal of debate concerning how the numbers of black students in Special education programs can be reduced. Although there has been a great deal of research related to attempting to reduce the proportions of Black students in Special education, little headway has been made as it relates to an actually decline in the number of Black male special education student. The author also explains that "exclusive of the growth in legal protections for special education students between 1970 and 1980, core values and beliefs associated with the field of special education have remained unaltered (Cherryl, 2003) ."

The author contends that one of the main defenses against the improper labeling of African-American males in public school is social workers. Social workers have a responsibility to ensure that each student receives a quality education and is treated properly in the school environment. The author also explains that there are legislative policies and provisions that establish the responsibilities of social workers in the school setting. Although this legislation is present, positive outcomes for the most vulnerable and educationally challenged populations is dependent "on the extent to which social workers do not succumb to professional drift, practice successfully within their professional domain, uphold ethics of the profession, exercise cultural competence, and are effective in countering pressures and challenges from other professionals that may lead to a position in which the best interest of children is compromised (Cherryl, 2003) ."

The author further insists that social workers are equipped with unique skills that lead to some difficulties when in an academic setting. For instance Hancock (1982) pointed out that social workers often experience a lack of clarity among social workers as a result of the differences in the interpretation "of their function from one school to the next. Hepworth and Larsen (1982) have explained that the dilemma for social workers lies in the fact that the main purpose of schools is education and social workers often find it difficult to help fulfill this educational mission (Cherryl, 2003)."

The author further explains that social workers are often compromised by administrators because they assign the social worker with tasks that are limited to roles that do not include referring or declining students to special education programs. As such the very people who are properly equipped to assign students and help them academically are distracted wit other types of work. The author also explains that when this is the case new or vulnerable social workers may submit to the pressures place on them by principals, guidance counselors, teachers, psychologists or other professionals to support the assignment of a special education label to students even when there is no evidence to suggests that they are special education students. Additionally,

"Given that complaints about the behavior of African-American males are most likely, social workers may contribute to disproportionate outcomes for these students in special education placements due to improper screening of referrals associated with deference to another professional or pressure form school officials to eliminate a "problem student." Additionally, beleaguered school climates that cultivate an environment of racial strife and indifference to cultural diversity can mitigate efforts to exercise culture competence in the evaluation and assessment process. As a consequence, the probability that African-American students will be over-identified, and referrals will lead to the assignment of a label and placement is increased (Cherryl, 2003) ."

With this understood these students need advocates that will assist them in ensuring that they are receiving the quality of education that they deserve to have and that will be of benefit to them in the future.

Conclusion

Overall the literature reveals some of the discoveries that other researchers have made as it pertains to the causes and the implications of the overrepresentation of Black males in special education programs. The literature reveals that deeply seated notions about race contribute greatly to the mislabeling of African-American males in public school settings. The research also suggest that special education mislabeling leads to negative outcomes are it pertains to rates of school graduation and rates of incarceration. The research also indicates that these students need advocates such as social works to assist them and to ensure that they are not mislabeled.

Chapter Three

Methods (Qualitative)

Qualitative research involves the collection of data via surveys, interviews, questionnaires or secondary research that has previously been conducted. For the purposes of this study Qualitative research methodology was chosen because it provides insight based on the reflections of teachers who are responsible for special education assignments.

Overview of study

The study will focus on why such overrepresentation exist from the perspective of educators who are currently in the position of helping to determine which students need to be placed in special education classrooms. The study is also designed to evaluate both the known and perceived impact of overrepresentation of African-American Males in Special Education classrooms.

Participants & Setting

The study takes space of a 2009-2010 school year. The study involves ten seventh grade teachers from five middle schools in a large city in the north east section of the United States. There are 2 teachers that represent each of the five middle schools; one special education and one general education teacher.

Research Design

For the purposes of this study identical surveys (see appendix) were provided to each of the participants at both the beginning and the end of the school year. The seven-question survey was designed to measure the feelings of teachers as it pertained to the overrepresentation of black males in special education classrooms. The survey questions were also specifically designed to answer the previously stated research questions.

Data Collection

The first surveys were sent to participants via email during the first week of the school year. The participants were given one week to fill them out and return them electronically. The surveys were then printed out and the answers were reviewed and recorded. This process was completed at the end of the school year amongst the same participants.

Data Analysis

The data was simply recorded for each question asked. Once both of the surveys were received the answers from the first survey were compared to the answers from the second survey to reach various conclusion about the findings.

Measures of Confidentiality

All participants signed confidentiality agreements (see appendix) to ensure that they would keep their identities anonymous. When returning surveys electronically the participants were given a special email address that only revealed that they were part of the study. They were also given special instructions as to what to put in the subject line of the email.

Conclusion

This will be a qualitative study that will present participants with a seven question survey. Participants will include two teachers from each of five randomly chosen middle schools. The data will be collected and recorded. The two surveys will then be compared to one another and the findings will be analyzed.

Chapter Four

Analysis of Data

Overview of study

The study will focus on why such overrepresentation exist from the perspective of educators who are currently in the position of helping to determine which students need to be placed in special education classrooms. The study is also designed to evaluate both the known and perceived impact of overrepresentation of African-American Males in Special Education classrooms.

Results of your analysis

Survey Questions

Under what circumstances would you suggest a child be placed in a special education program? Most participant (8 out of 10) asserted that the inability to pay attention or consistently acting as a distraction were the circumstances under which they would recommend special education for a student.

Have you ever recommended a child for special education placement? All participants had recommended at least two students for special education programs during their tenure as teachers.

In your school are black males overrepresented in Special Education Programs? Nine of ten of the participants conceded that Black males were overrepresented in special education programs.

Do you believe that Black males are mislabeled for Special education programs? Seven of ten participants believed that Black male students were often mislabeled as special education students. Five participants also added that they believed that Black males were more likely to be mislabeled than their While male peers.

Do you believe that there are lasting negative outcomes for black males who are mislabeled? If so please elaborate. All of the participants believed that there were long-term negative outcomes that occur when black male students are mislabeled. Most often when elaborating the teachers pointed out that there are substantial academic disadvantages that Black males will encounter throughout their academic careers as a result of being mislabeled.

Do you believe that Black males that are mislabeled are more likely to drop out of school or to become incarnated? If so, please elaborate? All of the participants believed that black that are mislabeled are more likely to drop out of school. All of the participants also asserted that as a consequence of dropping out of high school black males are more likely to become incarcerated.

7. What if anything can be done to prevent Black male students from being mislabeled? Seven out of ten of the participants asserted that behavioral problems need to be treated with real solutions associated with changing behavioral outcomes. The other three participants believed that schools have to make a more concerted effort to find out how students learn and to develop curriculum that is consistent with the manner in which students learn.

Summary

Overall the result of the research indicate that there is indeed a serious problem of the overrepresentation of Black males in special education programs. The research indicates that teachers do not always have the tools they need to assist students in a manner that will not cause them to be mislabeled. The research also indicates that behavioral problems are often made to be academic problems or translated into learning problems for students. The teachers also indicate that mislabeling results in long-term negative outcomes for Black male students as it pertains to academic failure and the likelihood of incarceration.