Human Psychology Compare and Contrast

¶ … Human Psychology

Compare and contrast the parental and child behaviours commonly attributed to each attachment style in relation to the three attachment styles and the "Strange Situation" scenario.

A large volume of research was conducted during the second half of the 20th century on the different styles of psychological attachment between parents and children. The principal findings of that research suggest that there are three primary psychologically relevant attachment styles typically apparent between infants and their mothers and they are evident in experimental situations such as the classic studies of infant response to strange situations. Securely attached infants explore new situations without their mothers and are pleased to be reunited with them immediately afterwards. Insecurely attached infants exhibit fear and anxiety in new situations without their mothers and their apparent anxiety levels increase rather than decrease on their reunion.

Insecure-Avoidant infants are comparatively unaffected by brief separation and new situations and do not exhibit significant connection with their mothers on reunion (Steele, Steele, & Fonagy, 1996).

Some of the research in this area has been devoted to the relationship between parenting styles and infant attachment styles. In general, sensitivity is the quality of parenting that is most closely associated with secure attachment styles in infants and in children (De Wolff & van Ijzendoorn, 1997). By contrast, insensitivity and inconsistent responses on the part of parents are most closely associated with insecure attachment in infants and children. Furthermore, there are apparently behavioral and biological (i.e. hereditary) components to psychological attachment, as demonstrated by the degree to which parenting style can result in changes in infant behavior in primate studies (De Wolff & van Ijzendoorn, 1997). However, the prospect of precisely defining the degree to which attachment styles are functions of behaviorism or biology are difficult to determine in humans because of the complexity the interrelationships between those factors and the ethical constraints that apply to human research.

Critically discuss this statement: "Personality traits change over the life course of an individual."

It is generally believed that human personality changes significantly as people age. That observation seems most obvious at particular stages or transitions, such as from young adulthood to middle adulthood and from adulthood to old age. Both anecdotal evidence and empirical studies (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008) suggest that many individuals become more socially conscious, more conformist, and more socially and personally responsible as they progress from early adulthood to middle adulthood. Likewise, empirical evidence (Helson, Kwan, John, et al., 2002; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008) strongly suggest that the degree and type of change that individuals experience with aging are substantially attributable to biological traits (i.e. heredity) as well as to the nature and quality of their experiences. More specifically, whereas many individuals become more patient, more flexible, and more socially conscientious in their later years (Helson, Kwan, John, et al., 2002; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008), that is not necessarily true, especially among individuals who have experienced significant trauma or disappointments in their lives (Helson, Kwan, John, et al., 2002).

One aspects of personality change that seems to remain consistent is the degree to which old age is typically associated with a reduction in "social vitality" (Helson, Kwan, John, et al., 2002). Individuals with positive life experiences typically continue participating in close interpersonal relationships but decrease the size of the social circle in which they participate; meanwhile, individuals with negative life experiences typically become more withdrawn, including with respect to their closest social relationships as they age (Helson, Kwan, John, et al., 2002).

Critically discuss and suggest possible reasons for this statement: "Psychological health of sole mothers is commonly poorer than it is for partnered mothers."

Empirical research indicates that single mothers are at significantly greater risk of psychological disorders than married mothers and other mothers within two-parent homes (Loxton, Mooney, & Young, 2006). While there are multiple factors at issue, economic hardship and the increased exposure to multiple psychological stressors without the same access to stable support networks as are typically available in two-parent homes are all significant contributing factors (Brugha, Sharp, & Cooper, 1998; Loxton, Mooney, & Young, 2006).

The empirical findings make perfect sense and seem to comport very closely to anecdotal evidence as well as to common sense. Infancy is widely acknowledged as a tremendously stressful time of life in the lives of parents, even when they have the benefit of an involved spouse. It is a time when parents are overworked, stressed, and frequently sleep-deprived for prolonged periods of time. Those are all significant potential stressors that contribute to depression; naturally, where a single parent faces those stressors and obligations alone, the magnitude of stress would be expected to increase proportionately.

Furthermore, single parenthood is probably directly associated with higher instances of loneliness and emotional emptiness as compared with parenthood within a stable nuclear family environment with a supportive spouse. Indeed, being single late into adulthood (especially for women) is a likely source of anxiety and depression. The prospect of finding a partner is greatly reduced by virtue of single parenthood, both as a practical matter having to do with time management and energy as well as in terms of motherhood being a potential barrier to the interest of many prospective partners. Finally, all of the available research (Brugha, Sharp, & Cooper, 1998; Loxton, Mooney, & Young, 2006) strongly suggests that single motherhood is also associated with financial hardship, which is also independently associated with depression in general.

Cognitive ability commonly declines in old age. Discuss the environmental and biological factors that have positive and negative influences on cognitive aging.

In general, both mental activity (Anstey, 1999) and physical activity (Van Gelder, Tijhuis, Kalmijn, et al., 2004) are empirically associated with reduced cognitive decline in old age. More specifically, adults who remain mentally active in ways that involve cognitive abilities such as linguistic recall, social conversation, reading, and problem solving tend to retain better cognitive abilities than similarly-aged individuals who do not continue to use their mental faculties as much in their advanced years (Anstey, 1999). Likewise, elderly individuals who remain physically active in old age also retain batter cognitive functions (as well as physical abilities) as compared with individuals who do not remain physically active in old age (Van Gelder, Tijhuis, Kalmijn, et al., 2004).