Parental supervision and its effects on adolescent school attendance

Parental Supervision: Its Effects on the Adolescents School Attendance Philadelphia Public School

Attainment of education is a critical predictor of various health related and mortality issues and truancy has a capacity to ultimately end the chance of academic achievement of a meaningful nature and to be associated with negative outcomes later in the life of the adolescent with poor school attendance. Parental involvement has been shown in several studies to be a critical factor in the school attendance record of the adolescent individual. The work of Cookston informs this study that existing is "general disagreement regarding how much supervision is enough for older children, including adolescents. Moreover, early adolescents and older adolescents are likely to require differing amounts and types of supervision." (Cookston, 1999; 110) Findings in this study include that adult supervision is related to both educational achievement and school-related problems that increase the risk of dropping out of school. Parental absence from the home additionally affects the educational expectations of the household and the resulting motivation of the adolescent in school.

PARENTAL SUPERVISION: ITS EFFECTS on the ADOLESCENTS SCHOOL ATTENDANCE PHILADELPHIA PUBLIC SCHOOL

INTRODUCTION

Attainment of education is a critical predictor of various health related and mortality issues and truancy has a capacity to ultimately end the chance of academic achievement of a meaningful nature and to be associated with negative outcomes later in the life of the adolescent with poor school attendance. Parental involvement has been shown in several studies to be a critical factor in the school attendance record of the adolescent individual.

BACKGROUND of the STUDY

While little research exists relating to school attendance among adolescents and the affect that parent supervision has on school attendance, studies do exist which show that parental involvement in and supervision of adolescent's life and education has a great impact on the attendance Many homes today are single-parents homes and this too has an effect on whether the parents are individually and collectively active in supervision of their adolescent's education and free-time away from school and home.

REVIEW of the LITERATURE

The work of Jeffrey T. Cookston entitled: "Parental Supervision and Family Structure: Effects on Adolescent Problem Behaviors" states that parental supervision "defined as direct monitoring of the adolescent's activities or being available should the adolescent need assistance, has been related to a number of problem behaviors including school achievement" and cites the work of Coley and Hoffman (1996). (1999; 110) Factors, which affect the level of supervision parents provide to the adolescents, include that of the parent's vocational requirements. Cookston relates the importance of acknowledging the fact that parental monitoring experiences a decline during adolescence as the child becomes more able to take care of him or herself. However, there is noted as well a "general disagreement regarding how much supervision is enough for older children, including adolescents. Moreover, early adolescents and older adolescents are likely to require differing amounts and types of supervision." (Cookston, 1999; 110)

Cookston relates that a great deal of evidence exists that family structure as well as parental supervision rates "are related to the acquisition of problem behaviors in adolescents, however, to date, these perspectives have not been adequately considered together." (1999; 110) Stated as limitations in this study is that only single mother homes were considered without regard for single -father homes. It is stated that girls who live with single fathers when studied showed that "high monitoring has been found to be associated with delinquency while high levels of supervision for intact families and single-father families with boys was related to low levels of delinquency." (Cooskston, 1999; 112)

The study of Cookston states several hypotheses as follows:

intact families will have higher rates of parental supervision than single-parent families;

adolescents from intact families will have lower rates of problem behaviors compared to children from single-parent families;

Adolescents from homes with lower rates of parental supervision will report more problem behaviors than adolescents from homes with higher rates of supervision;

Adolescents from single-mother families and adolescents from single-father families will not differ in the levels of problem behavior observed. (Cookston, 1999; 112)

Cookston states that the sampling in the study reported are adolescents participating in an "ongoing longitudinal federally funded project study of adolescence." (1999; 112) the sampling was comprised of 90,000 students in grades 7-12. These students completed a questionnaire at school and as well a random sampling of more than 15,000 adolescents selected and interviewed at home. Of students completing the home questionnaire, seventy-five percent had previously completed the in-school questionnaire. Stated as independent variables in this study were:

1) Family structures; and 2) Parental supervision. (Cookston, 1999; 117)

Cookston relates that the hypotheses in this study were supported "for the most part..." (1999; 119) Results in this study suggest that the role of parent supervision "can have a positive impact on deterring the rates of adolescent problem behavior acquisition." (Cookston, 1999; 119) Furthermore, this study found that the highest rate of problem behavior "and lowest levels of parental supervision" was noted in single-father homes and furthermore that children in single-father homes "appear to be at the highest risk for the acquisition of problem behaviors..." (1999; 119)

The work of Silvia E. Gioguli Saucedo entitled: "School Dropout, Adolescent Labor and Family Structures in Mexico" relates that Mexico "experienced important gains in its social indicators during the second half of the past century." (nd; 1) Presently, more than fifty percent of children in Mexico are leaving school early in adolescence, or prior to the age of seventeen years of age which has been notably linked to entrance into the labor force. Saucedo states that when one parent is absent in the home, resulting is a "decrease in parental supervision and social capital..." (nd; 5) Specifically stated is that the single parent family is one in which the parent "generally needs to work outside the home; therefore he or she has a large time constraint regarding children's educational progress and behavior and a lower parental involvement in their development. The decrease in adult supervision is related to both educational achievement and school-related problems that increase the risk of dropping out of school." (nd; 5) Parental absence from the home additionally affects the educational expectations of the household and the resulting motivation of the adolescent in school. Saucedo states that participation rates of the parent in the adolescent's education are likely to be "greater in single-mother households." (nd; 7)

The work entitled: Prevalence and Correlates of Truancy Among Adolescents in Swaziland: Findings from the Global School-Based Health Survey" written in 2007 by Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira states of educational attainment that it is "an important determinant of diverse health outcomes. Truancy among adolescents jeopardizes changes of achieving their educational goals. Truant behaviors are also associated with various psychosocial problems." The study of Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira was conducted among 7,341 students and were 36.2% males and 63.8% females. The study reports findings that the prevalence of truancy overall for the last thirty days prior to the study was 21.6% and was reported as 27.4% males and 17.9% females. It is noted in the work of Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira that "truant behaviors have the potential to curtail" the academic experiences of adolescents that result in meaningful learning. Adolescents who do not attend school regularly are "reported to engage in risky sexual practices, illicit drug use, alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking." (Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira, 2007) Furthermore, adolescents with poor school attendance are morel likely to have "adverse social and health outcome later in life." (Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira, 2007) Adolescents with poor attendance in school are also "more likely to experience marital or job instability and psychosocial maladjustment when compared to their counterparts who were not truant as adolescents." (Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira, 2007) Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira state that other factors associated with poor school attendance include:

1) the level of parent's education;

2) amount of time adolescent spends unsupervised;

3) poor school grades; and 4) illicit drug use. (Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira, 2007)

Findings in the study reported by Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira include those as follows:

Adolescents who were 14 years old were more likely to report truancy than those of age 15 years or more;

Adolescents who were in their 6th to 8th year of schooling were 7% more likely to report truancy than those who were in their 9th to 11th year of schooling.

The odds of truancy in adolescents who went hungry sometimes compared to those who were hungry most of the times were 1.30 times;

Compared to participants who did not drink alcohol, those who drank alcohol were more likely to report truancy

Adolescents who felt that most students were rarely or sometimes kind and helpful were likely to report truancy compared to those who felt that most students were always kind and helpful;

Adolescents who had parents who rarely checked their homework were more likely to report truancy than those whose parents always checked their homework

Adolescents who indicated that their parents rarely understood their problems and worries were 50% more likely to report truancy than those who said that their parents always understood their problems and worries; and Adolescents who were rarely supervised by their parents were more likely to report truancy than those who were always supervised by their parents. (Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira, 2007)

The following labeled Figure 1 shows the factors associated with truancy among adolescents in the study conducted and reported in the work of Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira (2007)

Factors associated with truancy among adolescents in Swaziland

Factor or (95% CI)*

Age

Sex

Male

Female

Schooling (years) to 8 to 11

Hungry

Most of the times or always

Drank alcohol

Number of times bullied or 2

Most students kind and helpful

Most of the times

Parents checked homework

Most of the times

Parents understood problems

Most of the times

Parental supervision

Most of the times

or (95%CI)* adjusted for all the factors in the model

Siziya et al. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 2007 1:15 doi:10.1186/1753-2000-1-15

Source: Siziya, Muula, and Rudatsikira (2007)

The work of Stanton et al. (2004) entitled: "Randomized Trial of a Parent Intervention" states that while "numerous interventions have been demonstrated to reduce targeted adolescent risk behaviors for brief periods, sustained behavior changes covering multiple risk behaviors have been elusive." Stanton et all report a study conducted for the purpose of making a determination of "whether a parental monitoring intervention (Informed Parents and Children Together [ImPACT]) with and without boosters can further reduce adolescent truancy, substance abuse, and sexual risk behaviors and can alter related perceptions 24 months after intervention among youth who have all received an adolescent risk-reduction intervention, Focus on Kids (FOK)." (2004) the study was conducted through a randomized, controlled three-celled longitudinal trials in thirty-five low-income, urban community sites among 1817 African-American youth aged 13 to 16 at baseline. All youth participated in Focus on Kids which is an 8-session, theory-based, small group, face-to-face risk reduction intervention. (Stanton, et al., 2004; paraphrased) the main outcomes measures are stated to be "responses at baseline and 24 months after intervention to a questionnaire assessing risk and protective behaviors and perceptions. Analyses used General Linear Modeling, intraclass correlation coefficient, analysis of covariance, and multiple comparisons with least significant difference test adjustment." (Stanton, et al., 2004) Stanton et al. states that over the past ten years emerging have been "several adolescent risk-prevention programs of demonstrated efficacy toward the reduction of sexual risk behaviors, substance abuse, and tobacco use prevention." (Stanton, et al., 2004)

Characteristics that successful programs stare include the following characteristics:

1) theory-based;

2) practice in skills;

3) attentive to personal values and social norms, narrowly focused on specific risk behaviors and using multiple delivery formats." (Stanton, et al., 2004)

While these efforts have been substantial in nature, "their transient influence on risk behavior has been disappointing for those interventionists who have attempted to follow up youths through the adolescent years." (Stanton, et al., 2004) Stanton et al. states that parents, quite differently from friends, parents are "more or less permanent in an adolescent's life..." In that the role of the parent in the life of the adolescent is an important determinant of risk and protective behavior among adolescents, competing admirably with the influence of peers." (Stanton et al., 2004) Stanton et al. (2004) states findings in this study as follows: "This study demonstrates the ability of a supplemental intervention among parents to substantially enhance and sustain the intervention effect enjoyed from an adolescent risk-reduction intervention. Intervention effect on behaviors, perceptions and knowledge was demonstrated 2 years after intervention." (2004) Results of the study show that student's grades, test scores, and educational aspirations, parents helped daughters in some ways

In a separate study it is reported by Carter (2000) entitled: "Parental Involvement with Adolescents' Education: Do Daughter's or Sons Get More Help?" that research examining whether "parents were involved differently with the education of their adolescents daughters and sons." (Carter, 2000) Data in this study was collected from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) which was comprised of information collected from 25,000 eighty-grade students." Parental involvement was analyzed for 'gender differences' which included:

1) school discussion;

2) parent-school connection;

3) parental expectations;

4) parental attendance at school events, and 5) three measures of parental supervision (checking homework, limiting television watching, and limiting going out with friends). (Carter, 2000)

Research has shown clearly that parental involvement in the education of an adolescent is critically important for academic achievement of a positive nature resulting in successful outcomes. There is only very little information relating to the involvement of parents and the differences existing between parental involvement in their son's and their daughter's education. The work entitled: "Background for Community-Level Work on Educational Adjustment, Achievement and Attainment in Adolescence: Reviewing the Literature on Contributing Factors" states that few studies "have examined the characteristics of adolescents' families and peer relationships that have implications for their achievement motivation. Preliminary research has found that adolescents whose parents are more involved in their schooling and who were brought up in more cognitively stimulating homes tend to hold more positive forms of achievement motivation." (Redd, Brooks, and McGarvey, nd) Additionally stated that the several studies have indicated that children from "two-parent families and children whose mother had her first child at an older age tend to show higher levels of school engagement. Further, positive parent-adolescent interactions are related to higher levels of school engagement." (Redd, Brooks, and McGarvey, nd) Stated as findings in this study is that development of programs should focus toward involving parents in their children's lives. Specifically stated is: "For instance, adolescents whose parents are more involved in their lives have higher levels of educational adjustment than those whose parents are less involved. However, some forms of involvement appear to matter more than others. Research suggests that adolescents who have parents who communicate to them their interest in their well-being and their high expectations for them in the educational realm have improved school engagement, achievement, and attainment." (Redd, Brooks, and McGarvey, nd)

The work of Carter (2000) entitled: "Parental Involvement With Adolescents' Education: Do Daughters or Sons Get More Help?" reports research which examined "whether parents were involved differently with the education of their adolescent daughters and sons. The investigation used data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS), which collected information from approximately 25,000 eighth-grade students. Several types of parental involvement were analyzed for gender differences, including school discussion, parent-school connection, parental expectations, parental attendance at school events, and three measures of parental supervision (checking homework, limiting television watching, and limiting going out with friends). " (Carter, 2002)

Carter reports that findings from the study demonstrate that: "...net of students' grades, tests scores, and educational aspirations, parents helped daughters in some ways and sons in other ways. Generally, daughters experienced more parental involvement with their education than did sons. The findings are discussed in terms of parents' traditional socialization practices vs. A shift in parental treatment in response to social trends." (Carter, 2000) Carter reports effective parental behaviors to include:

helping children with their homework; encouraging them to study; answering questions,; offering guidance on educational decisions; having contact with the school and teachers; and attending school events. (Carter, 2000)

Considered as well in the study reported by Carter (2000) were the following:

Frequency of parents' attendance at school events in which their child participated;

Parental attendance;

The interaction of parents with the school (parent-school connectivity),

The work entitled: "Improving School Attendance: A Resource Guide for Virginia Schools" states that truancy "is a multifaceted problem" and is affected by family factors which include: "lack of parent supervision and/or guidance, poverty, substance abuse in the home, domestic violence, lack of familiarity with school attendance laws, and varied education priorities."

Additionally stated is: "Parental attention certainly has an effect on children's school attendance. Parent involvement with school and homework correlates with students having better attendance records..." citing the research of Corville-Smith, et al.(1998) and Jenkins (1995). This work goes on to relate the fact that: "Parents are key allies in a school's efforts to increase students' connection to school. Studies indicate that the quality of the relationship between home and school is connected to a student's improved achievement and behavior. The Search Institute has found that when parents are engaged in their children's schooling, those children tend to have a higher commitment to education and fewer problems in school, including with high-risk behaviors. However, it can be difficult to connect parents with school, especially those who had difficulty in school themselves. For them, school is likely an aversive place, Blum says. School staff needs to find ways to reach out to all parents, and to these parents in particular." (Virginia Department of Education, 2005) Schools can assist parents in creation of a home environment that supports education through providing: