Parenting styles and alcohol consumption among Jewish college students

Parenting Style Influence on Excess Alcohol Intake Among Jewish Youth The harmful effects of alcohol abuse by adolescents are well documented, and these effects can have lifelong implications. Some of the more challenging aspects of addressing this problem include differing cultural and religious views about alcohol use. In addition, different types of parenting styles within these different settings can also have a profound effect on adolescent alcohol use and abuse. To help fill a gap in this body of knowledge, the purpose of this quantitative survey research was to examine the relationship between different parenting styles and alcohol consumption among Jewish college students in the United States because previous studies have not focused specifically on cultural context when studying the relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents. The study is especially important today because there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews in recent years. Moreover, this study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing a new dimension of culture to the literature on alcohol and parenting. A summary of the research and important findings concerning these issues are provided in the study's concluding chapter.

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Adolescent Use of Alcohol Alcohol use among adolescents is acknowledged as a significant family and societal problem (Yang, Zhiyong, & Schaninger, 2010). Professionals in multiple healthcare fields have warned that adolescent alcohol use can lead to (a) detrimental drinking patterns, (b) negative influences on families, and (d) significant costs to society (Yang et al., 2010). The costs of adolescent alcohol to society are truly enormous and have been estimated at $68 billion annually (National study reveals teen substance use America's no. 1 public health problem, 2011). These economic costs, of course, are in addition to the tragic toll that adolescent alcohol use can exact, a toll that can last a lifetime. In fact, adolescents who drink are more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, which can lead to significant mental and physical health problems; thus, it is important to understand how to reduce the prevalence of adolescent alcohol abuse (Yang et al., 2010).

Parenting styles have been identified as a dominant determinant of children's behavior, but this influence becomes less important as young people grow older (Altay & Gure, 2012). Researchers have determined an authoritative parenting style can mediate alcohol use frequency in teen children (Yang, Schaninger & Laroche, 2012). Abar and Turrisi (2008) found that even if parents provided alcohol education and support in late adolescence, better outcomes were realized. The positive outcomes included better peer friendships in college, which acted as a preventative measure for excess alcohol intake. The researchers found that parental monitoring led to college aged children picking friends who did not abuse alcohol; thus, parents served as good mediators in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

An influencing factor in adolescent and young adult alcohol consumption is parenting style. Researchers have found that there is a relationship between parenting style and adolescents' attitudes, knowledge and behavior with respect to alcohol use (Ballantine, 2009). In some cases, an authoritative parenting style can be effective in shaping healthy attitudes about alcohol use in young people, while in others a different style is required. There are four main types of parenting styles commonly recognized today: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful (Ballantine, 2009) which are defined below.

Authoritative parenting style: These parents are demanding and responsive, controlling but not restrictive. This child-centered pattern includes high parental involvement, interest, and active participation in the child's life; open communication; trust and acceptance; encouragement of psychological autonomy; and awareness of where children are, with whom, and what they are doing.

Authoritarian parenting style: These parents are demanding, but not responsive. They show little trust toward their children, and their way of engagement is strictly adult-centered. These parents often fear losing control, and they discourage open communication.

Permissive parenting style: These parents are responsive, warm, accepting, and child-centered, but non-demanding. They lack parental control.

Neglectful parenting style: These parents are neither responsive nor demanding. They do not support or encourage their child's self-regulation, and they often fail to monitor or supervise the child's behavior. They are uninvolved (Ballantine, 2009, p. 46).

Not surprisingly, different outcomes for young people are the result of using different parenting styles, with some being more effective for some purposes than others. Researchers have also found that the type of parenting styles used has an effect on young people's social and psychological adjustments that can influence alcohol use and abuse (Ballantine, 2009). The research to date indicates that an authoritative parenting style without the use of physical punishment is the most effective for controlling adolescent alcohol use (Ballantine, 2009).

Other factors found to influence or govern alcohol consumption in adolescents and young adults include peer pressure which can be intensified due to cultural or religious factors (Jones, 2014). In some societies, young people are allowed to enjoy a glass of wine at dinner with the adult members of the family and nothing negative is associated with the practice. Likewise, the legal drinking age varies from country to country, and some countries such as Japan offer alcoholic beverages in vending machines which are accessible by all (Balko, 2010).

Similarly, in Judaism, wine is essential in most cultural and religious ceremonies; every Jewish kid gets acquainted to it at a young age, through older family members, during Sabbath. All Jews grow up following this tradition of getting blessed over wine, and having a sip, every week on Sabbath day. It has been shown that, while Jews are normally meant to consume sensible, moderate quantities of wine, particular occasions, like Passover celebrations, allow them to drink intoxicating quantities, as stated by Velleman. Judaism, however, advocates controlled alcohol consumption, and sacred scriptures warn against overindulgence. According to Velleman, Jews earlier exhibited very low drinking problems. Weiss (2001) as well as Velleman (2002), however, admit that drinking issues are increasing among them, and hint at various reasons responsible for this rise, one of which is transformation of traditional family strength.

These are important issues because alcohol use among adolescents and young adults in general is escalating, and is increasingly being acknowledged as significant family and social problems (Yang, Zhiyong, & Schaninger, 2010). Alcohol use frequency has been an increasing problem on college campuses in particular (Larimer & Conce, 2007). Serious potential health consequences, the start of detrimental drinking patterns, negative influences on families, and cost to society are concerns expressed by professionals in multiple healthcare fields (Audrain-McGovern et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2010). Today, there is a need for additional research into youth drinking patterns in order to develop the best possible preventative strategies and interventions. Research must be culturally specific as well as age appropriate. This proposed research study focuses on the possible relationship between parenting styles and drinking habits among Jewish youth, and offers suggestions for treatment and prevention strategies. Background for Adolescent Use of Alcohol Young adult and teen drinking are rising and acknowledged as a significant family and social challenge (Yang, Zhiyong, & Schaninger, 2010). Serious potential health consequences, the start of detrimental drinking patterns, negative influences on families and cost to society are concerns expressed by professionals in multiple healthcare fields (Audrain-McGovern et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2010).

Adolescents who drink may be more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, which could lead to mental and physical health problems increasing the importance of understanding how do reduce the prevalence of alcohol abuse (Yang et al., 2010). Parenting styles have been identified as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child's behavior (Baumrind, 1991). In particular, with an authoritative style, parents can mediate alcohol use frequency in their teen children (Yang, Schaninger & Laroche, 2012). Even in late adolescence, parental involvement in accordance with alcohol use education and support, yielded young adults making better peer friendships in college, leading to preventative measures of excess alcohol intake (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Similarly, successful parental monitoring allowed for their college aged children to pick friends that do not abuse alcohol; in these cases, parents served as good mentors in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Parenting styles have influenced the degree and frequency of alcohol use in college age students (Larimer & Conce, 2007, Yang et al., 2010). In particular, there has been a clear association between parental monitoring and reduced drinking among teens (Beck et al., 2004). For example, a study by Goncy and van Dulman (2010) notes that, "Empirical findings demonstrate that several parental factors are related to alcohol use, alcohol related problems and co-occurring risky behaviors" (p. 94). Parental support and higher involvements levels have been shown to reduce adolescent problem behavior including alcohol use (Goncy & van Dulman, 2010). It is also noteworthy that these findings hold true across ethnicities and gender and higher levels of parental support and involvement are consistently associated with less alcohol use by adolescents (Goncy & van Dulman, 2010).

One of the parenting styles that has positively influenced reduced alcohol use among adolescent college adults is the authoritative style (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). Authoritative parents are described as being highly demanding but responsive, demonstrating noteworthy success in safeguarding their children from alcohol use frequency (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). Though children whose parents are authoritative were least unstable and most adept, those with parents having a fairly imbalanced demanding-responsive ratio, i.e., non-authoritarian-directive and democratic, were nearly equally well adjusted and adept. As compared to youth from democratic as well as authoritative backgrounds, those hailing from directive families- non-authoritarian and authoritarian- were slightly less academically adept and individuated; however, they had good social skills. Those whose parents are non-authoritarian-directive were more proficient and less troubled than those whose parents are authoritarian-directive.

Thus, children's levels of competency can be predicted by parenting styles; also, parenting styles can temper impacts of (perceived) parenting practices excluding abuse. Hence, variables that represent demandingness factor prove more beneficial when implanted in authoritative structures. Contrary to authoritarian structures, the authoritative structure combines firm supervision and control on behavior with support of child self-sufficiency and affection. Likewise, high responsiveness levels positively impact children when combined with high levels of demandingness in authoritative systems, but not on combining with low levels of demandingness in tolerant settings. Earlier outcomes (for instance, Baumrind, 1991) show a positive association of adolescent autonomy with authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 2005). Problem Statement According to demographic research conducted by Brandeis University (2011), there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States, 20% of which live in the state of New York (Tighe, et al., 2012). Since 2005, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). Adolescents who drink may be more likely to drink excessively when they are adults, a situation that could lead to mental and physical health problems (Yang et al., 2010). Therefore, direct and immediate action is necessary in order to ensure the long-term health of Jewish youth, their families, and their communities.

There are few documented studies examining the relationship of parenting styles and alcohol use frequency of college and rabbinical college students in the American Jewish community. This study will seek to reveal a new dimension of possible perceived parenting style relationship with alcohol drinking frequency from a cultural lens within the United States Jewish community. The degree to which parenting styles influence college age drinking frequency within the Jewish community remains unknown because earlier studies have not examined this issue in a cultural context (Beck et al., 2004).

The relations among parental views on effectiveness in preventing teen substance abuse, teen competence, substance use and parenting practices were studied (Chang et al., 2013). Chang and coworkers (2013) demonstrated that parental effectiveness is a critical contributor in promotion of teen competence, enhancement of parenting practices, and reduction in teen substance consumption. Parenting style research isn't just done by Baumrind; Alfred Adler also added to the field of defining and classifying parenting. Adler's autocratic parenting theory is analogous to Baumrind's authoritarian parenting style. Moreover, Adlerian theory's permissive style of parenting is considered detrimental as it doesn't inculcate a sense of accomplishment in children. Permissive and autocratic styles of parenting do not successfully turn kids into responsible individuals after growing up. Democratic parenting, however, is deemed as more suitable from Adler's perspective because of autonomy, behavioral compliance and psychological adjustment ideals (Pressley, 2013).

Mills (2010) indicated that student results and general parenting style weren't appreciably linked; the relation between these two components was not moderated by locus of control. Additionally, gender and style of parenting were also not appreciably linked. Yet, these research outcomes on parental practice of formulating domestic rules are at odds with earlier research findings, like Baumrind (2005). Parents who adopt authoritative reasoning with their teenage children for clearing up their own standing, while simultaneously taking into account their child's standpoint, are believed to endorse and value teen autonomy; their behavior with their teenage children is similar to their behavior with adult cohorts (Sorkhabi, 2010). This may shed light on why authoritative reasoning is linked with few disputes and harmonious relations in the current study. Research outcomes depict that reciprocity exhibited in authoritative reasoning is linked to lower incidences of conflicts; this is possibly attained by enhancement of mutual understanding in dyadic perceptions, as it decreases parental authority's negative potential (to force or extricate), and by enhancing the inclination to cooperate with each other (Sorkhabi, 2010). Permissive style of parenting proves to be the least tricky, and children growing up in such backgrounds are less liable to display criminal, delinquent and aberrant behaviors (Spraitz, 2011). Predictably, children whose parents spurned or ignored them were more liable to display criminal, delinquent and aberrant behaviors. In the meantime, authoritative and authoritarian styles projected hardly any behaviors. Regardless of differences in individuals (male/female; white/non-white; country jail prisoner / college student), the parenting style they experienced in childhood predicts behavior. Higher perspective taking (PT) by mothers indicated lesser externalizing issues in sons only if high clear expectation (CE) levels were shown by mothers (Sher-Censor, Assor & Oppenheim, 2014). Therefore, in circumstances wherein parent-teen conflicts occur, understanding of parents towards opposing viewpoints by their teen, together with clear statements on behavior expectations may link to improved socio-emotional performance of teenage boys. Study findings agree with earlier research above (e.g., Baumrind, 2005).

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this quantitative survey research will be to examine what parenting styles are associated with alcohol consumption among Jewish college students in the United States. Since 2005, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005).This study adds a new dimension of culture to previous studies in the literature on alcohol and parenting. Earlier studies have not focused specifically on cultural context when studying the relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Beck et al., 2004; Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010; Fogel, 2005; Balhorn, Cheong, Larimer & Conce, 2007; Njenga, 2005; Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

This study has the potential to result in positive social change by bringing to light cultural aspects of parenting styles and their potential effects on patterns of drinking. Investigating the relationship through of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Attachment Theory, social learning theory, and Baumrind's (1991, 2005) parenting styles model are the main theoretical frameworks used in this research. It is postulated that parenting style is related to issues like teen ability to withstand peer pressure and to develop positive self-image, which are in turn related to self-regulation regarding alcohol use. Figure 1 outlines the variable relationships being tested by this study of alcohol consumption of Jewish college students.

Parenting styles have influenced the degree and frequency of alcohol use in college age students (Larimer & Conce, 2007, Yang et al., 2010). In particular, there has been a clear association between parental monitoring and reduced drinking among teens (Beck et al., 2004). One of the parenting styles that have positively influenced reduced alcohol use among adolescent college adults was the authoritative style (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). Authoritative parents are described as being highly demanding but responsive, demonstrating noteworthy success in safeguarding their children from alcohol use frequency (Baumrind, 1991; 2005).

Parenting styles have been identified as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child's behavior (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). In particular, with an authoritative style, parents can mediate alcohol use frequency in their teen children (Yang et al., 2012). Even in late adolescence, parental involvement in accordance with alcohol use education and support, yielded young adults making better peer friendships in college, leading to preventative measures of excess alcohol intake (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Similarly, successful parental monitoring allowed for their college aged children to pick friends that do not abuse alcohol; in these cases, parents served as good mentors in developing healthy coping strategies for becoming productive members of society (Abar & Turrisi, 2008).

Healthy attachment styles are also related to parenting styles (Doyle, Karavasilis, & Markiewicz, 2003). Parenting styles are communicated in a number of different ways. For instance, Benson and Haith (2010) note that, "Parenting styles convey parents' overall feeling about the child through body language, tone of voice, emotional displays and quality of attention" (p. 281). In particular, authoritative parenting is correlated with secure adolescent attachment (Doyle & Markiewicz, 2009).

Different parenting styles have been measured in accordance with self-regulation during peer pressure incidents such as those involving pressure to use alcohol (Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham & Nagoshi, 2001) Self-regulation of alcohol use among teens was positively correlated with authoritative parenting styles, while other parenting styles were associated with negative outcomes of self-regulating behavior in adolescents, and those teens were more likely to experiment with and use alcohol regularly (Balhorn et al., 2001).

Baumrind (1991, 2005) proposed four dominant areas of parenting. These areas include warmth, nurturance, discipline strategy, communication skills, and expectations about maturity (Sarac, 2001). The configuration of these four elements in a household had a bearing on child development (Baumrind, 1991; Sarac, 2001; Baumrind, 2005). The ability of the parents to control and limit their children's behavior is one of the most significant features associated with helping adolescents develop prosaically (Baumrind, 1991; Baumrind, 2005; Bretherton, 1992). Family environment and overall household culture are also key factors that play a major role in deciding the alcohol consumption pattern of college age students (Njenga, 2005). The experiences that a child encounters in early childhood either develop or discourage certain patterns of behaviors (Njenga, 2005).

Three typical parenting behaviors were outlined by Baumrind (1991, 2005) and Bretherton (1992) including authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Another parenting style was identified as the uninvolved/disengaged parent or neglectful (Ballatine, 2009). The nature of parenting style has been considered as a dominant factor in deciding the overall outlook of a child's personality (Baumrind, 1991, 2005). However, alcohol use frequencies are present in all four different styles of parenting to a greater or less degree (Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001). It can clearly be inferred that these different parenting styles need further investigation of how they influence alcohol consumption of adolescence during their years of college.

The later phase of adolescence is the focal point of this research because it is during this critical age that desire to act as an independent individual, coupled with social pressures and stressors may be overwhelming enough to lead some college students to alcohol use and abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

Social Groups

In general, group processes and group socialization demonstrates commonality between individuals while deepening understanding of relationships within and between groups by means of a source of social identity (Moody, & White, 2003). It provides solid arena for a sense of who/what they are, their worth, and the message intent manifested by a specific group membership (Moody, & White, 2003). The next key factor is existing tension in group life between its task and socio-emotional aspects (e.g., doing what they do as a group, praying, smoking, music, etc.) while further complimenting their status by assimilating outside the group (Moody, & White, 2003).

Finally, the underpinnings of group dynamics carry social comparison processes, both among inter-group members and various out-groups (Brown, 2000). However, there are ample supporting simulations from contemporary life, focusing on issues of social sense of belonging (Brown, 2000). For example, crowd behavior, social conformity, group productivity, ethnic prejudice, conflict, and cooperation between groups (Brown, 2000).

Jewish Social Groups

Framing adolescent alcohol abuse within a cultural context is important because it helps highlight individual and social variables that can be used to identify the most effective intervention strategies. Some social groups such as American Jews are exposed to alcohol from a young age, such as during religious rituals. This ongoing exposure may normalize drinking and may therefore lead to increased risk for alcohol abuse.

Interestingly, prior research on young adult and college age American Jews reveals that in spite of normative alcohol present in their culture, there were lower rates of alcoholism and alcohol abuse (Riley & Marder, 1947; Mulford, 1964; Cahalan & Cisin, 1968; HEW, 1972; Levy, 1973). Yet since 2005, there has been a measured increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). The later phase of adolescence is one where pressure and a desire to act as an independent individual are overwhelming enough to convince college students to opt toward excessive alcohol use frequencies, which is why this segment of the population is critical to study (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). This sizeable population is worthy of study due to their increased risk for excessive alcohol consumption.

The current study focuses on parenting styles and their influence on drinking patterns in college age male American Jews. To date, little prior research has been conducted specifically on this cultural group and parental influence on drinking. Although parenting styles is the primary focus of the research, it is also important to note the significance of group processes. Focusing on a population of American Jews allows for an understanding of why and how parenting styles evolve, and how those parenting styles might conjoin with other psychosocial and cultural factors such as group conformity and identity.

In general, group processes and group socialization encourage commonality between individuals, while deepening a sense of personal and social identity (Moody, & White, 2003). Group identity provides solid arena for identity construction (Moody & White, 2003). Assimilation and norming are core group processes that can influence individual behaviors (Moody & White, 2003). It is important to understand group dynamics to understand individual behaviors (Brown, 2000).

Alcohol and the Jewish Community

Jewish culture is centered on ritual performances, and alcohol often plays a role in those rituals (Wasser, 2013). In the Orthodox Jewish community, alcohol is more readily available and provided at almost every traditional ritual and ceremony (Wasser, 2013). For example, a bris is the circumcision ritual is performed on the eighth day after birth. It is a reference to the circumcision of Abraham and the original Covenant with God (Glass, 1999). The Rabbi and father of the boy being circumcised make a blessing on wine. It is customary for everyone present at the ceremony to have a sip from the cup of blessed wine as a symbol of unity to the Jewish covenant (Glasswell, 1974).

Alcohol is present since the time of birth; it is clear that separating alcohol from Jewish ritual and custom is impossible. Traditions are part of the moral fabric of Jewish cultural and family life. Judaism's vision is to communicate a morally sound way of life (Wasser, 2013). As a collectivist community, participants are taught to foster feelings of connectedness to family, community, and the people of Israel (Wasser, 2013). During the Sabbath, which lasts from Friday evening through Saturday evening, every traditional orthodox Jewish home performs a minimum of three rituals involving wine (Landsberger, 1956). Alcoholic beverages are used for kiddush, a special prayer made every week by the Sabbath table (Fogel, 2005). This ritual is performed at least two times over the weekend (Fogel, 2005). In addition, during many other celebrations, there is plenty of whisky, wine, and beer available in Jewish households (Horowitz, 1989).

When problematic behaviors are exhibited in college settings, students generally are direct witnesses to them, or find them out from fellow students. Still, even when the negative impacts of drinking-related behaviors by others are encountered by them, they might not protest or meet such behaviors head-on. Research, as well as theory, indicates that social rules interventions may be formed to tackle secondhand impacts of high-risk drink-consumption and demonstrations of prejudicial actions. A lot has been discovered by effectively applying theories of social rules to prevent alcohol abuse. Interventions and research denote that social rules principle alone can effectually decrease alcohol use and related issues. However, applications suggest that an approach using social norms may not sufficiently be effective, for certain communities and issues, and must be combined with parallel interventions like skills training to put a stop to oppressive comments (Perkins, 2003). Study findings agree with earlier research above (e.g. Velleman, 2009).

Bar mitzvahs and Jewish weddings are also replete with rituals that warrant alcohol drinking (Mann, 1988). In almost all traditional celebrations, wine is present, as wine makes an appearance in many Biblical texts (Charing, 1981; Gersh, 1971). It is possible that the Jewish culture boasts higher levels of alcohol consumption at religious rituals versus the general population (Charing, 1981; Gersh, 1971). When students study the Talmud and Jewish law, they learn about the role alcohol plays in rituals. Graduates from Rabbinical colleges may devote the rest of their lives to the study of Torah and other Jewish texts. Therefore, alcohol abuse must be understood within the overall context of Jewish culture. Focusing on male Rabbinical students allows for an examination of how parenting styles, culture, and alcohol availability all play a role in drinking patterns.

Research Question

The research question that guided this study is as follows: "What is the relationship between perceived parenting styles and alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students aged 18-26 years?"

H01 There is no relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting styles and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

HA1 There will be a positive relationship between the independent variables of perceived parenting style and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

H02 There is no relationship between the academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of Jewish college students.

HA2 There will be a relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of Jewish college students.

H03 There is no relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of Jewish college students.

HA3 There will be a relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of Jewish college students.

Variables

The independent variables include parenting styles. Parenting styles will be measured by the Parental Authority Index (PAI) (Buri, 1991). Perceived parental styles of authoritarian, authoritative, permissive/uninvolved, and neglectful/uninvolved will also be measured using a perceived parenting style questionnaire known as PAQ. The validity and reliability of the PAQ was established by Buri (1991).

The dependent variable will be defined as college age alcohol consumption as measured by Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) (Dawson, Smith, & Saha, 2012). Alcohol consumption patterns will be measured using the AUDIT (Dawson et al., 2012). The World Health Organization recommends AUDIT to identify excess alcohol use/dependence and "provides a framework for intervention," as it is designed for health care practitioners in a "range of health settings" (Babor et al., 2001).

Authoritarian

Authoritative

Permissive

Age

GPA

Gender

Alcohol Consumption

Figure 1: Independent variable of perceived parenting style relationship with dependent Variable alcohol consumption will be examined with control for religion (Jewish), age and gender (male) within a national sample from Survey Monkey. Moderating variables measured include age ( 18 -26), academic achievement (Grade Point Average) and current college level (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior)

Nature of the Study

The nature of this study will be a quantitative method of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and (outline your design) using two existing instruments PAI and AUDIT to examine the variable relationships. Buri's (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire was developed to measure the main parental styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative from the point-of-view of the child. This survey consists of thirty items, divided into ten each for permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and thus has a high degree of external validity. Survey Monkey will be used as a national probability sample identifier of the United States Jewish population in the data collection.

According to demographic research conducted by Brandeis University, there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States, 20% of which live in the state of New York (Tighe, et al., 2012).The estimated sample consists of 200 participants who will have signed and completed the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was also designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who were willing to comment on their own drinking habits as well as their perceptions of their parents' parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males were selected for participation and males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. All participants will be from the United States and Self-identify as Jewish. No students outside of University/Rabbinical college attendance may be used as participants, to keep the participant pool as narrow and focused as possible.

Definitions

Rabbinical College. Where post high school students study the Talmud and Jewish law. Graduates from these colleges usually devote the rest of their lives to the Torah (Jewish Bible). Many of these individuals often become Rabbis who are responsible for passing on the teachings of the great Jewish scholars (Heilman, 1992).

Assumptions

Based on my observation growing up within the Borough Park Brooklyn Jewish community as an Orthodox Jew within the U.S., alcohol is readily available at all joyous occasions. High levels of alcohol drinking frequency are already an existing problem around the world. Undoubtedly, our culture allows easy accessibility to alcohol for our youngsters. In my opinion, it is a community problem that needs to be addressed to raise the level of awareness that any sort of alcohol availability needs to be cautiously monitored. This assumption is necessary based on a recent increase among College/Rabbinical College drinking frequencies as well as alcoholism within the community (Fogel, 2005).

Scope and Delimitations

As noted above, high-risk alcohol drinking frequencies has been a global problem for centuries (Petersen, 2003; Room, Babor & Rehm, 2005). However, the specific focus on the United States Jewish community needs to be addressed due to a literature gap. Other groups of college freshman were studied and clear connections from parenting styles to drinking frequencies were found. (Brand, Mitchell, Read & Wood, 2004).

The study will focus on the United States Jewish community. The study will only include Jewish males aging from 18-26 years. Samples will be drawn via Survey Monkey in an online environment to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. No females will be included at any time. Peer pressure, Jewish affiliation, Alcoholism, other Jewish communities, and secure adult attachment will not be measured.

The estimated sample consists of 200 participants who will have signed and completed the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was also designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who were willing to comment on their own drinking habits as well as their perceptions of their parents' parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males were selected for participation and males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of university attendance may be used as participants, to keep the participant pool as narrow and focused as possible.

Limitations

A similar study has not yet been executed in other Jewish communities. There is also a low level of external validity, and the results may not transfer to communities outside the one addressed here. The bias I carry is the belief that many in our community are closed-minded and commonly adapt authoritarian parenting practices that may lead to more of an increase in alcohol drinking frequency when compared to other communities. This bias will be addressed by focusing more closely on the parenting style evidence-based questionnaire and how it influences with the drinking frequency questionnaire. There may also be a low level of external validity, and the results may not transfer to communities outside the one addressed here, except among other Jewish communities in America.

A reasonable measure taken to address the limitations is the application of other theoretical frameworks that further compliment healthy attachment practices within the scope of child development.

Significance of the Study

Since 2005, there has been an increase in alcohol intake among adolescent Jews (Fogel, 2005). How much of an increase? This study adds a new dimension of culture to previous studies in the literature on alcohol and parenting. The study will clearly address the limitations and gap of the Jewish culture that has alcohol use embedded to all its rituals (Glass, 1999). Earlier studies did not focus on any cultural aspects as control variables for the study of the relationships between parenting styles and alcohol use by adolescents (Beck et al., 2004; Bahr & Hoffmann, 2010;Fogel, 2005; Balhorn, Cheong, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2001; Peckham & Lopez, 2007; Larimer & Conce, 2007;Njenga, 2005).This study leads to positive social change by bringing to light cultural aspects of potential drinking hazards from easy accessibility to alcohol. Investigating the relationship through of parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns in adolescents may reveal the need for better intervention programs or community health initiatives (Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Changalwa et al., 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007).

This dissertation is organized in a traditional manner, with a review of literature and methods section, followed by a presentation of the results, an in-depth discussion, and conclusion. Chapter Two presents a critical review of the literature focusing on the role of parents and parenting styles. Furthermore, child development theories and their frameworks will be discussed, including attachment, early bonding, and family involvement. Research on drinking frequency among youth is also presented. The chapter concludes with an overview of how the variables of parenting styles might influence drinking frequency.

Chapter Three will characterize the proposed methodology, research design, and procedure for examining drinking frequencies and parenting styles. Chapters Four and Five will present the research results, findings, recommendations for future research, and social implications.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

The aim of the investigation was to find out if any link existed between the style of parenting and attitudes on use of alcohol among Jewish youth. Included in this chapter is a review of the literature on the use of alcohol among Jewish youth and the influence of parenting on decisions regarding alcohol usage. The topics discussed are alcohol use and gender, youth alcohol use, parenting style and alcohol use, and the prevalence of alcohol use among the young Jews.

Literature was accessed via EBSCOhost, Questia and PubMed to find peer-reviewed, recent, and relevant journal articles about parenting style and alcohol use, particularly within the Jewish faith. Keywords used in the search for relevant material included parental style, protective factors, attitude, alcohol use, questionnaire, and quantitative study. This literature review was interpreted using an attachment theory lens based on its focus on parent-child relationships which, as noted above, have been shown to have an effect on attitudes about alcohol. Attachment theory researchers are interested in the bonds and relations between individuals, especially lasting relationships such as parent-child bonds and associations between couples (Bowlby, 1978).

Attachment Theory

Bowlby (1978) first advanced understanding about attachment theory over 30 years ago. The author explained the primary parent-infant bond, which is vital for development and survival. As conceptualized by Bowlby (1978), attachment is grounded in ethology, which is the study of human behavior from a biological perspective. Bowlby (1978) described how infants' smiling, crying, clinging and seeking closeness cultivate the parent-infant bond and boost survival. Secure attachment has been proven to be vital to healthy teen adjustment. Research indicates that the parent attachment role alters as the child grows (Choon & Hasbullah, 2013). Small children, for example, seek physical availability and closeness for comfort in times of distress (Berson & Baggerly, 2009).

By contrast, though, teens do not require the same level of closeness; comfort can be derived from being aware that their parents support and understand them even in those instances where the parent is not physically present (Berson & Baggerly, 2009). Nevertheless, researchers have found parental attunement and understanding are critical for maintaining attachment security in the teenage phase, particularly as adolescents grow older and seek more autonomy in their lives. Parental ability to sustain goal-directed connections with children is also imperative for maintaining good parent-child relations, and the ability to sustain goal-directed connections has been found to be especially challenging as parent-child disputes rise during adolescence (Moretti & Peled, 2004).

Because the adolescence period is frequently characterized by emotional problems that can have significant implications for social development and adaptation, it is important to understand the social contexts in which adolescents are raised and the effects these have on their emotional development (Nyarko, 2012). In this regard, Nyarko (2012) emphasizes that, "In relation to the emotional development of adolescents, important questions to be addressed are how their relationships with their parents and peers contribute in improving or undermining their emotional development" (p. 162). An important component of emotional development is the prudent use of alcohol, especially during the formative adolescent years as discussed further below.

Prevalence of Alcohol Use among Adolescents

The U.S. Surgeon General (2007) stated that alcohol is the most widely abused substance among adolescents, defined generally by Black's Law Dictionary (1990) as being "that age which follows puberty and precedes the age of majority" (p. 49) in the United States. Therefore, the age of adolescence varies according to individual as well as jurisdiction, but the ages 13 to 17 years can be generally regarded as encompassing the adolescent years (Reagan & Yankey, 2015). The CDC (2009) determined an estimated 21% of all adults in the U.S. in this age group tasted their first alcoholic drink at 13 years of age.

Approximately 73% of U.S. high school students and 70% of New York state high school students (excluding those in New York City) reported using alcohol at least once (CDC, 2011). Data from 2005 indicated 76% of New York state high school students reported using alcohol at least once during their lifetimes (CDC, 2011). The CDC (2011) also reported more alcohol use among adolescent females (74.2%) compared to adolescent males (70.8%); however, the number of males who drank before they turned 13 years old was much higher than females (23.7% for males, 18.1% for females) (CDC, 2009). A higher number of females (49%) than males (35%) admitted they received a drink from another person (CDC, 2009). These are important issues because they directly relate to the inordinately high rate of alcohol use among adolescents in the United States today, a trend that also has some serious implications for these young people's health as discussed below.

Health Effects of Drinking Alcohol

There are both long-term and immediate effects associated with alcohol consumption. For example, Paul and Smith-Hunter (2011) emphasize that, "The abuse of alcohol is widely recognized as a major social problem with significant consequences related to health, safety and other societal factors" (p. 134). Some of the immediate effects on health are poor judgment, risky behavior, violence and traffic accidents (Brown & Tapert, 2004). Almost 37% of all adolescent traffic deaths in 2000 were related to alcohol use (Brown & Tapert, 2004). Alcohol poisoning and miscarriages have been identified as effects of consuming alcohol (Kesmodel, Wisborg, Olsen, Henriksen & Scheler, 2003).

Some of the other health and social concerns associated with alcohol use include liver cirrhosis, loss of family, unemployment, and psychiatric problems such as neurological issues, depression, and stroke (CDC, 2012). The CDC (2012) has also linked cardiovascular problems to high consumption levels of alcohol. In addition, the research to date using animals indicate sensitivity to alcohol is especially high during adolescence, and chronic levels of alcohol use during the adolescent period have also been shown to increase cellular death that may have severe implications that can persist into later adulthood (Splete, 2008).

While more research is needed in this area, the limited studies to date that have used human adolescents also indicate that higher levels of alcohol use may be associated with a reduced hippocampal volume (Splete, 2008). Taken together, it is clear that alcohol se in general and severe alcohol use by adolescents can be a danger that should not be ignored by teenagers when confronted with the decision whether to drink or not, but they are also faced with a broad array of factors that influence this decision as discussed below.

Factors Associated with Adolescent Drinking

There are different reasons linked to adolescent alcohol use (Hayes & Curry, 2010). Although there are a number of different reasons, most are related in one way or another to developmental issues. For instance, Splete (2008) reports that, "A complex mixture of biologic, psychological, and social evidence suggests that alcohol consumption in children and adolescents is a developmental issue" (p. 24). The various reasons that adolescents use alcohol have been classified into social/interpersonal, contextual / cultural, and individual categories (Chawla, Neighbors, Lewis, Lee, & Larimer, 2007). Individual risk factors for higher levels of alcohol use include personality traits, physiological makeup, and various personal factors such as emotional state and performance in school (Chawla et al., 2007). Some of the social/interpersonal risk factors include discounts on alcohol purchases available from friends and family members. Alcohol use may be perceived as acceptable is an adolescent sees another member of the family drinking alcohol (Cerezo & Mendez, 2013). Cultural/contextual risk factors include racism, availability of alcohol, and economics (Cerezo & Mendez, 2013).

The other risk factors include social acceptance, peer pressure, boredom, curiosity and little to no parental control (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Petraitis, Flay, & Miller, 1995). The research to date also indicates that individual religiosity levels among adolescents can serve as a protective factor against alcohol use and misuse, but additional research is needed concerning the effects of religious context of parenting on alcohol use and misuse by adolescents (Li, 2011).

Alcohol and Peer Pressure

The social factors for the use of alcohol include environment, family, and peer groups (Paul & Smith-Hunter, 2011). The strongest factor in adolescent alcohol consumption is peer pressure (Hendricks & Savahi 2015; Hodge et al., 2001). Family dynamics also influence adolescent alcohol use. An adolescent with stronger family bonds will be less inclined to drink (Dunn, Kitts, Lewis, Goodrow & Scherzer, 2011). For instance, researchers have also indicated that peer influence plays a very important role in the use of alcohol (Cornelis & Cauberghe, 2014). Likewise, Almadovar et al. (2006) also found that peer influence played a major role in adolescent alcohol use.

Peer pressure becomes even more powerful as young people grow up and spend less time with their families and parents and more time with their peers (Splete, 2008). Increasing peer pressure has been associated with earlier use of alcohol and increasing alcohol use among young people aged 10 to 15 years (Splete, 2008). According to Lashbrook (2000), "Peer pressure is a specific instance of social influence, which typically produces conformity to a particular way of acting or thinking" (p. 747). In reality, it is little wonder that peers are influential among adolescents based on the increasing time that is spent with these individuals outside the family home (Lashbrook, 2000).

Peer pressure tends to increase in influence compared to sources, including parents, during the transition from childhood into adolescence, and acmes by the ninth grade with respect to antisocial behaviors (Lashbrook, 2000). It is important to note, though, that the growing influence of peers on adolescents does not replace parental influence which remains salient but is lessened over time (Lashbrook, 2000). In this regard, Lashbrook (2000) concludes that, "Parental socialization remains important, although the exact balance between parents and peers varies depending on the specific behavior or belief, as well as family qualities, such as degree of bonding and closeness" (p. 747). In addition, adolescents' families remains an important factor in alcohol use among young people of all ages as discussed below.

Alcohol and Family

Family acceptance may influence adolescent alcohol use (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). For instance, Messler and Quevillon (2014) emphasize that, "Perceived parental approval of alcohol use has been shown to directly predict alcohol related consequences among adolescents" (p. 45). In fact, even though parental influence on children tends to lessen as they grow older, parents can still have a major influence on their children's alcohol usage even after they leave home (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). Likewise, Aldomodovar et al. (2006) discovered that acceptance of alcohol by parents was linked to drinking at a very young age, drunkenness, and binge drinking.

The family environment and alcohol use was also the focus of a study by King and Vidourek (2010) that found significant differences in alcohol use among different ethnicities in the United States. For example, almost half (47.6%) of Hispanic adolescents report having consumed alcohol during the previous month versus 47.3% for white adolescents and just over one-third (34.5%) for African-American adolescents (King & Vidourek, 2010).

Moreover, King and Vidourek (2010) also note that drinking in Hispanic families begins at early ages compared to white and African-American families, and this factor has been attributed to higher levels of alcohol use later in life. For instance, King and Vidourek emphasize that, "Hispanic youth begin drinking at an earlier age than white youth with 29.0% of Hispanic youth drinking alcohol before the age of 13, compared to 21.5% of white youth" (p. 232). Earlier first-uses of alcohol have been consistently linked with higher rates of violence, suicide, delinquency and alcohol use among adolescents (King & Vidourek, 2010). Indeed, King and Vidourek conclude that, "Those who drink before age 14 are four times more likely to develop alcohol abuse and dependence than those who begin drinking at age 21" (p. 232).

More research is needed to understand the factors that influence initial alcohol use in children, and the data are not conclusive as to whether children who first experiment with drinking when they are younger than age 12 years are at greater risk than those who initiate alcohol use at age 13-14 years. Social contexts, including drinking habits in the child's home and the child's exposure to alcohol through mass media, contribute to children's attitudes toward alcohol and expectations of its effects.

Children in alcoholic families are at increased risk for developing alcohol-related problems. Based on data from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey published in 2000, 15% of children aged 17 years and younger in the United States were living with at least one adult who met criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence within a year of the survey. Although alcohol use at a young age is a problem, some parents opt to introduce children to responsible drinking patterns within a family context, and any public or school-based alcohol abuse prevention programs must take family and cultural considerations into account in order to be effective (Splete, 2008). Besides the family, other factors contribute to adolescents' attitudes about alcohol use as discussed further below.

Attitudes and Alcohol Use

As adolescents grow older, they also become more highly attuned to external societal influences, and mature in their perceptions of cultural messages from their peers and mass media (Splete, 2008). Researchers have shown that third-grade students most often associate alcohol use with undesirable outcomes such as acting out of control but by age 10 years, these same young people have formed much more positive attitudes about alcohol use (Splete, 2008). Notwithstanding the powerful impact of peer pressure on adolescents, attitudes about alcohol use are clearly shaped by the constant stream of media messages these young people receive as well. For instance, Splete points out that, "Adolescents are increasingly sensitive to peer behaviors, and the mass media could serve as a 'superpeer' in forming their thinking, they said. Movies and television aimed at adolescents often show teenagers drinking and rarely show them suffering any negative consequences" (2008, p. 24).

Attitudes about alcohol are also shaped by the societies in which young people live. In this regard, Charen (1995) points out that, "Societies with low rates of alcohol abuse share certain features. Among Jews and Italians, for example, alcohol is introduced to children at an early age, is associated with family and religious events, and is not stigmatized. Though drinking is regarded neutrally or positively, becoming drunk is treated harshly" (p. 7). Clearly, social forces serve to shape adolescent attitudes about alcohol use, and as these social forces are internalized, individual attitudes become more concrete.

For instance, Chawla et al. (2007) conducted a study to examine personal attitudes as the mediator of the significance of religion and use of alcohol. An Internet-based survey was completed by student participants who were between 17 and 19 years of age to determine how much alcohol they had consumed. The survey was also used to determine the place of religion in their personal attitudes toward drinking. The authors discovered that personal factors were the biggest mediating factor between the significance of religion and the use of alcohol. The people who had held religion in high regard tended to hold negative attitudes towards the consumption of alcohol and did not drink. Those respondents who did not hold negative attitudes toward the consumption of alcohol tended to believe religion was not vital, and they did not have reservations about consuming alcohol. Participants were predominantly Christian, atheists, or those who did not specify with a particular religion. The response rate was low and there was a possibility of selection bias.

Likewise, Rollocks and Dass (2007) evaluated what influence religion had on alcohol consumption among the adolescents of Trinidad, Tobago, and St. Lucia. The sample frame included those form several different religions including students who identified as Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh Day Adventist, Baptist, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, Muslim and Hindu (Rollocks & Dass, 2007). Stratified random sampling was used and questionnaires were completed by adolescents within six schools. The predominant religion was Roman Catholicism. The Hindus reported a higher level of use of alcohol than the others in the sample, which was in concurrence with other studies that had been carried out (Rollocks & Dass, 2007; Luczak, Shea, Carr, Li, & Wall, 2002). The next highest reported level of alcohol use was among those who identified as Muslim. Although Rollocks and Ali (2005) failed to find a statistically significant difference among ethnic groups with regard to alcohol consumption; they concluded that some other factors had a bigger contribution to the consumption of alcohol than did sociocultural factors. In a study was conducted in Thailand by Newman et al. (2006), the authors found 28% of secondary school students practicing Buddhism did drink alcohol compared to 35% of those within the same group of students who did not practice Buddhism.

Likewise, the Irish society also has different views about alcohol use compared to other societies. For instance, Charen (1995) advises that in Ireland, "Drinking is done among men outside the home. It is not associated with food or religious rites. It is introduced as a rite of passage to adulthood" (p. 7). Indeed, drinking is even encouraged in some cases as a panacea for the troubles that the human condition invariably encounters. In this regard, Charen adds that, "Moreover, being drunk [in Ireland] is viewed indulgently and humorously. Indeed, the Irish are urged to 'drown their sorrows' in drink" (p. 7). Besides these wide-ranging and powerful influences on young people's attitudes about alcohol use, parenting styles has also been shown to have a major influence on adolescent alcohol use as discussed further below.

Parenting Style and Alcohol Use

There is a growing body of evidence that the type of parenting style used can have significant differences on adolescent behaviors, including alcohol use levels. For instance, a study by Estep and Olson (2011) found that, "An increase in authoritative parenting was related to lower rates of alcohol use and deviant behaviors" (p. 831).According to Estep and Olson (2011), "The authoritative parenting style is one in which parents display both a high degree of warmth and involvement and a high degree of strictness and supervision" (p. 831). The authoritative parenting style differs from the authoritarian parenting style which uses a low warmth/involvement and high strictness/supervision approach, the permissive parenting style which involves high warmth/involvement and low strictness / supervision levels and the neglectful parenting style which is characterized by low strictness / supervision and low warmth/involvement levels (Estep & Olson, 2011).

There is also growing evidence that points to the possibility that alcohol consumption -- especially binge drinking -- negatively affects adolescent development and may increase alcohol dependence risk later on in adulthood (Squeglia et al., 2009; Grant & Dawson, 1997). Experts are advising parents to prevent or delay children's alcohol use (Messler & Quevillon, 2014). The style of parenting will determine a child's response to advice about the use of alcohol (Ballantine, 2009). As indicated in chapter one above, each parenting situation is unique, but they can be categorized into four main styles by how parents interact with their children:

Authoritarian parents are those who have the tendency of exerting higher levels of discipline and control with low responsiveness and warmth. They may, for example, punish a child for bad grades, and not reward a child for good grades.

Permissive parents are those who have a tendency to exert low levels of discipline and control with high responsiveness and warmth. Their view of grades, for example, may be that any grade is acceptable, and they may fail to punish bad behavior leading to poor grades.

Neglectful parents are those who have a tendency to exert low levels of discipline and control coupled with low responsiveness and warmth. In the case of these parents, there is no concern about the child's performance in school.

Authoritative parents are those who have a tendency to exert high levels of discipline and control coupled with high responsiveness and warmth. In this style of parenting, parents praise good performance but thoughtfully discipline poor grades and offer guidance on how grades can be improved (Ballatine, 2009).

Irrespective of the developmental outcome examined (i.e., substance abuse, academic success, or body image), children under the guidance of authoritative parents performed better than children brought up by parents who used other parenting styles (Ballantine, 2009), an outcome that was more apparent in the area of underage alcohol consumption (Simons-Morton et al., 2001). These outcomes can be explained, at least in part, by the fact that children with authoritative parents learn early problem solving approaches and how to express themselves, which helps them protect themselves against psychological dysfunctions that precede 2005-2015 the misuse of alcohol (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2007). Authoritative parents promote discipline and provide support, which is a good combination for building decision- making skills in young people (Ballantine, 2009). Good decision-making skills help children make informed decisions when they are faced with important issues such as alcohol or other substance use (Steinberg et al., 1992). As noted in the introductory chapter, there are a number of different parenting styles characterized in the academic literature and these different styles are discussed further below.

Parenting Styles

The effects of various parenting styles on children's behaviors have been an area of interest for researchers. Studies conducted on early childhood development have identified four main types of parenting styles: neglectful, permissive, authoritative and authoritarian (Ballantine, 2009). A parenting style is a set of attitudes communicated to a child creating an emotional environment in which the behaviors of the parents are expressed (Ballantine, 2009). Parenting styles usually communicate parent attitudes toward their children rather than their attitudes about specific behavior (Barnes et al., 2000). Authoritative parents have the following basic characteristics:

High expectations of obedience or compliance to parental rules and instructions,

An open and interactive dialogue on the rules and instructions, and,

A child-oriented style of parenting that features a warm relationship between the parent and the child (Ballatine, 2009).

Thus, according to Ballantine (2009), authoritative parenting produces positive effects. Authoritarian parenting has a similar approach to the authoritative style in terms of the high expectations of obedience to parent rules and instructions; however, authoritative parenting entails the utilization of more forceful techniques to gain compliance.

There is little to no open parent-child dialogue when the parent ascribes to an authoritarian style. The authoritarian style is parent-centered, and results in a cold atmosphere, often with negative effects. Permissive parenting is characterized by low behavioral expectations of compliance to rules and directions (Ballantine, 2009). Finally, neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting with low behavioral expectations (NIAAA, 2013; Perozzi et al., 2007). The negative and harmful effects of neglectful parenting continued to increase over time (Perozzi, 2007). In a previous study, and somewhat related to these findings, Perozzi et al. (2007) had posited that parents might benefit from understanding how their children perceive them.

In determining the relationship between parenting style and the legitimacy of moral authority in terms of tobacco and alcohol abuse among young adolescents, Jackson (2002) noted that adolescents raised in authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful styles of parenting had a higher likelihood of denying parental authority and using alcohol and cigarettes. Adolescents who were being raised in authoritative homes were six to seven times more likely to deny parental authority concerning drug abuse compared to those who were being raised in unresponsive or neglectful settings. Therefore, highly demanding and highly responsive parenting approaches were linked to adolescents who regarded their parents as being an important influence in terms of alcohol and tobacco use. The study by Jackson (2002), surveyed 1,220 6th and 8th graders from a North Carolina school district. Students were provided with self-report questionnaires. The findings supported the results of the research done by Baumrind (1978), and Darling and Steinberg (1993), who found that authoritative parenting is closely linked to lower demands for freedom from parental authority during adolescence; and therefore those adolescents with parents using an authoritative style of parenting had lower resistance to parental control or influence.

Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez (2006) surveyed 421 college students in their study of parenting styles and found an association between parent-child gender match, alcohol use, and parenting type. The parenting style of a parent of the same gender as the student exerted the most influence on the student's drug and alcohol use and the consequences of that use. The researchers also identified high parent permissiveness was correlated with high child impulsiveness. Moreover, the researchers also found that when the fathers were more authoritative, their sons were less impulsive; however, when mothers are more authoritarian, their daughters were more impulsive.

Even though both authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles involved high control, the authoritative style includes more warmth than the authoritarian style of parenting. Williams and Hine (2002) set out to determine the likely effects of parent permissiveness on alcohol consumption and alcohol misuse rates among 320 Australian high school students. Specifically, they tried to ascertain if attitudes towards subjective norms, alcohol use and perceived behavior control affected alcohol use. Researchers found that three variables fully mediated the possible effects of parent variables on alcohol use by adolescents, and the meditational models were the same for both males and females (Perozzi, 2007).

In general, literature on the issue of parenting styles suggested that the authoritative parenting style was best for affecting adolescent alcohol use. It also seems that the adolescent's perception of the parenting style has more influence than the parent's perception of his or her style. Studies also show there is a need for further investigation into how parenting styles influence adolescent alcohol use based on the gender of the child (Perozzi, 2007).

For the current study, perceived parenting style was a variable of independent family systems. It was expected that authoritative parenting styles would bring about lower levels of adolescent alcohol consumption and lower levels of binge drinking. Moreover, there is interest in determining how parenting style, parental variables, and parental control are connected. Further research into these connections may enable prediction of adolescent alcohol use and binge drinking.

Parenting Influences on the Development of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

Over the past 100 years, researchers have increasingly explored the role of the family in the development, prevention, course, and treatment of alcohol abuse and addiction or dependence. Many of these investigations have concentrated on children of alcoholics (COAs), who are usually more prone to becoming alcoholics than are the children of non-alcoholics (non-COAs). Empirical research into the topic of alcohol use in adolescence has been conducted studying the importance of genetics, personality and other psychosocial traits, and the evaluation of other variables such as ethnicity, social class, and family structure (Gruber & Celan, 2007). The focus of the current research is the influence of the family environment - especially the parenting influences that are related to the development of alcohol abuse and subsequent dependence. The focus of ongoing research in this area involves two types of family influences: alcohol-specific and non-alcohol-specific effects. Alcohol-specific effects show the influence of parental use and abuse of alcohol on the adolescent's use and abuse behavior. It is reasonable to posit that these influences are more pertinent to children of alcoholics than to children of non-alcoholics. In contrast, non-alcohol specific effects entail more general characteristics of the family environment that have the likelihood of increasing the adolescent's deviant behavior, including alcohol use (Gruber & Celan, 2007).

General Parenting Effects on Child Outcomes

The dominance of the family unit with regard to a child's cognitive and social development has been the basis of child development studies and family studies for over five decades. An analysis of the research to date provides some useful insights concerning general parenting effects on adolescent children. The first conclusion made from a review of the extant literature is that all family-based variables that can influence a child outcome (i.e., marital and sibling influences, parental dispositions and the socio-cultural context the family operates in) affect the interaction between the child and the parent. Second, the parent-child interaction is characterized essentially by two main parenting dimensions: nurturance (i.e., warmth and encouragement) and control (i.e. discipline and supervision). Disturbances in any of these dimensions can have harsh and far-reaching effects on the child's cognitive and socio-emotional development (Jackson-Newsom & Buchanan, 2008).

Parenting Effects on Alcohol Abuse of Offspring

There is a close relationship between antisocial behavior, adolescent delinquency, child conduct disorder, and alcohol abuse, with adult antisocial behavior and adult alcoholism (Jacob & Leonard, 1994). Nearly 20% of alcoholics, for example, have antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), which is characterized by a persistent disregard for and infringement or violation of the rights of others. In fact, ASPD linked alcoholism is the most encountered alcoholism subtype. According to Jacob and Johnson, the close relationship between alcoholism and ASPD implies that parent-child interactions that allow the development of antisocial behavior play a crucial role in the etiology of alcoholism of both COAs and non-COAs. Therefore, researchers must consider mediating factors that can increase or decrease the risks associated with parental alcoholism, including parental personality, parent-child interaction, child personality and temperament, and co-morbid parental symptomatology (Hanington & Ramchandani, 2009).

Judaism and Alcohol Use

Alcohol has been used and abused by some civilizations since time immemorial (Charen, 1995). According to Charen, though, "The severity and prevalence of alcohol abuse has differed dramatically in different societies. Some groups, like the Irish, have high rates of alcoholism and drunkenness, whereas others, like Italians, Jews and Chinese, consume alcohol regularly with few pathological excesses" (1995, p. 7). These differences in severity and prevalence are due in large part to the role played by alcohol in Judaism. In Judaism, alcohol is an essential part of Sabbath and other religious celebrations (Snyder, 1978). On the Sabbath day, a cup of wine is taken in Kiddush during the commencement of each meal, and a cup of wine is also taken in Havdalah at the end of Sabbath (Snyder, 1978). Indeed, Posner (2014) emphasizes that:

Wine and intoxicating beverages are a fascinating subject when viewed from the Torah's perspective. On one hand, we use wine for kiddush and havdallah on Shabbat and Jewish holidays, and many, many mitzvot are accompanied by a cup of wine. Blessings are recited on a cup of wine beneath the chupah (wedding canopy), at a circumcision, at a Pidyon Haben (the "Redemption of a Firstborn Son"), and let's not forget the four cups of wine we drink at the Passover seder. (para. 1)

Similarly, alcohol is a major component of celebrations during other Jewish holidays. Snyder described how alcohol is a specific part of Purim, where it is suggested that one drinks until he cannot distinguish between Mordechai and Haman. Ceremonies, such as weddings and other events, also include alcohol. Research has not been conducted, however, to examine the variations between different sects within Judaism and the potential impact of these differences. Still, it is known that reform Jews are largely assimilated; many of them are intermarried with people from other cultures and have a more international view (pers. knowl). Conservative Jews have similar views to Orthodox Jews concerning the use of alcohol. However Orthodox Jews observe stricter adherence to laws than the conservative and reform Jews; therefore, it is easier and more widely acceptable for adolescents to drink within this sect (Davis, 2012). Similarly, other religions have different sects and denominations that have different views or practices regarding alcohol use (Rollocks & Dass, 2007).

Knight et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine if there was an association between adolescent's use of alcohol and religiousness or spirituality. Following a careful review of the extant literature, the authors determined there was a gap in the available literature focusing "on the protective association of religiousness and its potential for positive outcomes" (p. 350). Specifically, they pointed out that that the factors of religiousness may differ from factors of spirituality. The authors posited that if physicians knew more about religious and spiritual constructs of adolescents, they would be able to intervene with targeted counseling efforts for youth involved with drugs and alcohol. Participants in the study were 12 to 18-year-olds who were receiving routine care at three primary care clinics in an East Coast city. The researchers were practicing physicians at the clinics.

Knight et al. (2007) described their study as cross-sectional, prospective, and observational. They used convenience sampling and were able to enroll 305 adolescents into the study. Only those who could read and write English were invited to participate, and patients with severe disease or complex psychological issues were excluded. Researchers collected demographic information along with information about each applicant's self-disclosed use of alcohol, cannabis, and other drugs. Each respondent also completed the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality, and a Spiritual Connectedness Scale.

The resulting data provided frequency information for basic demographics and for the resulting information from the spirituality scale scores. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine strength of relationships between alcohol use and spirituality. Results indicated that the spiritual construct of forgiveness was associated with lower risk of alcohol use, and they discussed the construct of forgiveness from trait and state perspectives. The researchers noted that their study "did not find that alcohol use during adolescence was significantly associated with religious preference" but they pointed out that their study was not designed to be able to fully examine the possible relationship (p. 353).

The authors conclude that forgiveness associated with religiosity can have a positive effect on adolescent alcohol use (Knight et al., 2007). In this regard, Knight and his associates conclude that, "Forgiveness is associated with a lowered risk of drinking during adolescence" (2007, p. 363). In addition, Knight et al. (2007) suggest that additional research is needed to fully explore this relationship: "Future studies should examine this question and further explore the relationship between various aspects of forgiveness and substance use during adolescence, as well as the relationship between forgiveness and other high risk behaviors and mood states" (2007, p. 355).

Because previous research had shown that impulsive adolescents are at higher risk for substance abuse and related disorders, Von Dieman, Bassani, Fuchs, Szobot, and Pechansky (2008) set out to determine if there was an association between impulsivity, age at first drink, and substance use disorders in male adolescents in Brazil. The authors described their study as case-control research, and they recruited participants from public healthcare centers within a smaller region of a big city in Brazil. They carried out 63 face-to-face interviews with adolescent males. Demographic information was gathered, and participants' substance abuse was measured using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). The Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS 11) was used to measure impulsivity, and the adolescents were asked when they first willingly had a drink of alcohol to determine the age at which they first began to drink. Religiousness of each subject was determined by asking them if they felt they were religious or not, which was a yes or no response.

Von Dieman et al. (2008) utilized logistical regression to analyzed survey responses. Results indicated the more impulsive the subject, the greater the likelihood for substance use disorder. Age at first drink was also associated with substance use disorder, which matched with what was found in a review of the literature conducted by the authors. Those respondents who had their first drink later in life had a statistically significant reduced risk for substance use disorders; chance of substance use disorder was decreased for each year that alcohol use was delayed. The authors also found the greater the level of individual impulsivity, the greater the risk of substance use disorder. Unlike the findings from the study conducted by Knight et al. (2007), von Dieman et al. (2008) failed to find a link between religiosity and substance abuse disorder. The authors pointed out, however, that this finding could have been due to the socio-demographic homogeneity of the sample population Knight et al., 2007). The authors called for future research to include longitudinal studies into the association of age at first drink and impulsivity.

Alcohol Use and Gender Differences in the Jewish Religion

In Judaism, men and women play different roles regarding alcohol use. Havdalah and Kiddush, two traditions of Sabbath, are performed with an alcoholic beverage, preferably wine (Snyder, 1978). The head of the household, usually a man, carries out these customs (Snyder, 1978). As previously discussed, males would be encouraged to drink to intoxication during Purim; however, the case was not the same for females (Werzberger, 2008).

Other authors, including Holmila and Raitasalo (2004), observed gender differences in the Jewish community with regard to alcohol use. The two noted that males did not restrain themselves and had many more alcohol-related problems compared to females. Based on their findings, Holmila and Raitasalo conclude that gender differences were a result of biological makeup, gender-specific roles, and social attitudes, which were congruent with the religious practices in Judaism.

Alcohol Use among Jewish College Students

Research has been conducted about religion and alcohol use among college students in institutions where Judaism was among the religions represented. For instance, Peele (2006) reports that, "Differences in drinking have frequently been noted among religious groups in the U.S. and elsewhere, including among youth and college students. Drinking by Jews has been one special object of attention due to their apparently low level of drinking problems" (p. 67). Likewise, Charen (1995) reports that, "Utter prohibition, such as that practiced by Mormons, is fraught with danger. A study of college students found that Mormons who do drink are far more likely to get drunk regularly than Jewish students who drink. The 'forbidden fruit' phenomenon is demonstrable and dangerous" (p. 7). A careful review of the extant literature, though, revealed there are no studies of alcohol use and Jewish adolescent high school students.

Theoretical Framework

Social bond theory and social development theory have been utilized to explain why people engage in particular behaviors. Social development theory was developed in 1962 (Vygotsky, 1978). Its basis is that social interaction comes before development. Social development theory focuses on the interaction or connection between individuals and the environment in which they operate. Vygotsky argued that social development depends on social interactions, which means cognitive development occurs only through interactions with other individuals (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). Vygotsky (1978) was also of the opinion that children learned from those around them, such as a parent, a peer, or a teacher.

The social bond theory was also utilized to assess the link between attitudes toward use of alcohol and religion in adolescents within the Jewish community. It was developed by Hirschi in 1969 and was fist utilized as a tool to evaluate juvenile criminal delinquency (Hirschi, 1969). There are four key elements of social development theory: commitment, attachment, involvement, and acceptance of the rules of the society (Misztal, 2013). If any of these four elements is missing, there is a higher likelihood negative behaviors will develop. The first element is attachment, and an attachment is described as a bond that one has to his or her family or the community. The second element is commitment, which involves the investment of time, money, or effort. The third element is involvement, characterized by participation in activities. The final element is belief, whereby individuals accept the rules of society (Brown & Prinstein, 2011). In sum, Durkin, Wolfe and May (2007) report that, "Social bond theory assumes that the motivation for deviant behavior is present in everyone, and concerns itself with the factors that keep an individual from engaging in deviance" (p. 735).

Utilizing concepts drawn from attachment and social bond theories, it is possible to demonstrate that the attitudes of adolescents toward alcohol can be influenced by their social environment and the activities in which they participate. For example, children in the Jewish community learn how to use alcohol early in their lives. Fathers drink during Sabbath and other religious holidays including the four cups of wine during Passover. If children are not prevented from joining in on these holiday festivities, they may grow up with a view that drinking is a harmless part of their religion (Snyder, 1978).

Religion is a form of social control (Etzioni, 2008). Although researchers have examined the relationship between religiosity and alcohol use by adolescents, there remains a dearth of timely and relevant studies concerning religious affiliation and binge drinking (Dunn, 2009). The social bond theory research indicates having a bond to religion or society can prevent a person from engaging in behaviors that are not accepted by the society (Durkin et al., 2007). As indicated previously, peers can influence behavior (Almodovar et al., 2006).

Social development and social bond theories are appropriate for the current study because their use provides insight about interactions between people and community (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). The objective for the current study was to examine the link between Judaism and attitudes toward alcohol use. Jewish adolescents are religious and will therefore show all the four elements of the social bond theory. Alcohol is used in many parts of the Jewish religion; therefore, many children will grow up believing alcohol use an acceptable part of life (Levin, 2014).

Methods

As described further in chapter 3 below, a quantitative design was utilized for the current study to achieve the above-stated research goals. A quantitative design is appropriate for theory testing and development of hypothesis, and allows for observation of particular variables (Creswell, 2003). A quantitative methodology can also help to determine how many individuals share a certain idea (Mann, 2003). A qualitative design would not be useful since it is more observational and explains individual patterns. Quantitative researchers utilize questionnaires, which is in contrast to qualitative approaches where open-ended interviews and observations are carried out (Creswell, 2003).

A cross sectional study design was utilized. This design was chosen because it allowed for data collection at one time (Neuman, 2003). Prevalence was investigated, and hypotheses were generated (Mann, 2003). Weaknesses associated with a quantitative cross-sectional design include the lack of capacity to measure incidence, challenges in interpreting relationships due to cause and effect, simple relationships are not clearly differentiated, and results depend on recall that can easily introduce bias into the study (Mann, 2003). The objective of using this design was to determine the primacy of attitudes in a population. The aim of the study was to determine if religion is linked with adolescent attitudes concerning alcohol use and actual alcohol use among Jewish adolescents. To understand the prevalence of alcohol use, the research will also involve the collection of quantifiable data concerning typical alcohol use by adolescent respondents using a questionnaire. This approach is congruent with previous quantitative, cross-sectional studies that have used questionnaires to inquire about alcohol and religion (Almodovar, et al., 2006). In sum, this study was designed to determine if parenting is associated with attitudes toward alcohol use. A cross sectional design (Francis & Mullen, 1995) will be used to determine the relationship between Judaism and the use of alcohol.

Summary

The extant literature regarding the relationship between parenting styles and attitudes toward alcohol use among Jewish adolescents was explored. Studies on this topic have shown that Judaism acts as a protective factor and influences adolescents' decision to start drinking alcohol (Werzberger, 2008). The ease of access and abundance of alcohol in Judaism also plays a role (Werzbeger, 2008). This study has the potential to provide additional insight into traditions of the orthodox Jewish community with regard to alcohol consumption. Previous research in this area has not focused on Judaism as a whole, and little attention was paid to sects within Judaism; thus, it is difficult to ascertain if a certain sect has been sufficiently captured in the data. The fact that females do not have the same alcohol use and dependence as men was also of interest. Information provided in Chapter 3 illuminates the best method for use in this study in order to evaluate the relationship between the Jewish religion and alcohol use among adolescents.

Chapter 3: Methods

The nature of this study will be a quantitative method of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and (outline your design) using two existing instruments PAI and AUDIT to examine the variable relationships. Buri's (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire was developed to measure the main parental styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative from the point-of-view of the child. This survey consists of thirty items, divided into ten each for permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and thus has a high degree of external validity. Survey Monkey will be used as a national probability sample identifier of the United States Jewish population in the data collection.

Research Question

What is the relationship between perceived parenting styles and alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students (aged 18-26) controlling for academic achievement and age?

• H01 There is no relationship between the independent variable of perceived parenting styles and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

• HA1 There will be a positive relationship between the independent variables of perceived parenting style and the dependent variable of alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

• H02 There is no relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

• HA2 There will be a relationship between academic achievement and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

• H03 There is no relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

• HA3 There will be a relationship between age and the alcohol use frequency of male Jewish college students.

Definitions

For the purposes of the proposed study, the following definitions will be used:

Academic achievement grade-point average (GPA) refers to a scale variable calculated by high school GPA, university entrance examination scores and class ranks (Cohen & Rice 1997)

Age refers to a scale variable computed by American adults aged 18 years and over within the subgroup

Gender refers to a scale variable determined by gender belief; it gauges and evaluates a culture's endorsement of philosophical views on gender roles. Measures have a tendency of tapping into numerous common discourses and themes, which constitute masculine or feminine belief. This approach encompasses awareness of individuals about cultural pressures to comply with specific expectations irrespective of personal preferences.

Authoritarian refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people's perceptions regarding their parent's authority style while they were raised.

Authoritative refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people's perceptions regarding their parent's authority style while they were raised.

Permissive refers to a scale variable calculated through 60 items (thirty for each parent) that inquire into people's perceptions regarding their parent's authority style while they were raised (Kordi & Baharudin, 2010).

Alcohol Consumption refers to a scale variable gauged by alcohol consumption frequency in the previous year, and was coded in the following manner: 1= lower than once per month; 2=one time a month; 3 = 2-3 times per month; 4 = once a week; 5 = 2-3times per week; 6 = 4-5 times per week; and 7 = daily or almost every day (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009).

Population / Sample

According to demographic research conducted by Brandeis University, there are 6.8 million Jewish adults and children in the United States, 20% of which live in the state of New York (Tighe, et al., 2012).The estimated sample consists of 200 participants who will have read and acknowledged the informed consent form as part of the online survey. Since the survey was also designed to measure parenting styles, it is necessary to have people who were willing to comment on their own drinking habits as well as their perceptions of their parents' parenting styles. The sample is deliberately homogenous according to gender, as only males were selected for participation and males were the target group for the current research. The participants may come from different family backgrounds, most of which are two parent households, but not negating the possibility of single-parent households. No students outside of university attendance may be used as participants, to keep the participant pool as narrow and focused as possible.

Instruments

Participants will complete both the AUDIT and the PAQ online. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT; Babor, Higgins-Biddle, Saunders & Monteiro, 2001) developed by the World Health Organization, is a survey for adults used to identify risky drinking behaviors by asking about quantity and frequency of use. It was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), and thus has a high degree of external validity. Although the test was developed specifically for use on populations that had already been identified as having drinking problems, it remains a reliable measure of risk (Babor & Grant, 1989).

The AUDIT (0000) survey is typically administered to patients in primary care, including those in emergency or acute patient settings or on criminals in court ("The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)," n.d.). Because of the high level of validity in the current survey, and the need for great internal and external validity in the current research, AUDIT proved to be a helpful instrument.

One benefit of AUDIT (0000) is that it is a brief and therefore unintimidating survey that takes only about two minutes to administer. There are a total of eight questions, each with a scale of 0 to 4 with "never" being a 0 and "daily or almost daily" as a 4. Therefore, the higher the score that results from the participant taking this survey, the higher the level of alcohol dependence indicated for that participant. The first response for the questionnaire could be a 0, for never. The second response would be less than monthly, or a score of 1. The third response would be monthly, for a score of 2. Weekly response is the fourth, yielding a score of 3. The final and last response is a score of 4 for daily or almost daily. Questions 9 and 10 have three responses only, with scores of 0, 2, and 4. A score of 8 or more is deemed to be hazardous drinking, or harmful drinking ("The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). A score of 15 or more for male participants indicates alcohol dependence.

The reason the Parental Authority Questionnaire survey was chosen for this research is because it was proven especially helpful for use with older adolescents and young adults, which is the population in question. Buri's (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) was developed to measure the main parental styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative from the point-of-view of the child. This survey consists of 30 items, divided into 10 each for permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles sub-scales. Sample questions include the following:

"As I was growing up my mother did not allow me to question any decision she had made." (p.2).

"Whenever my mother told me to do something as I was growing up, she expected me to do it immediately." (p. 2).

Buri (1991) tested for internal validity, consistency, and discriminant-related reliability. Cronbach alpha values were also obtained. Norm testing was also included in the evaluation of the survey. Parental warmth and nurturance were taken into consideration when developing the survey (Buri, 1991). Buri also found correlations with the Marlowe-Corwne Social Desirability Scale (Leite & Beretvas, 2005) and it was shown that the PAQ is not particularly vulnerable to social desirability response biases, or what the participant believes the tester is looking for or wants to see. This issue was taken into consideration for the current research.

Procedure

University students majoring in psychology, philosophy, child development, religion, science, and any other subject will be invited to participate in this research via the following links through survey monkey: https://www.google.com/#q=parenting+authority+questionnaire for PAI and http://www.markjayalcoholdetox.co.uk/audit.php for the AUDIT.

Students must be over 18, male, attending a 4-year university or college, and in Rabbinical school.

Participants will be selected by random sampling of Survey Monkey with a soliciting email address, after which the participants were given the survey instruments as described later in this methods section. Informed consent will be acquired via a secure form, an outline of the study, and a form showing the participants that they have the ability to withdraw their application to participate without being penalized for doing so. After informed consent is acquired, the two surveys will be administered online.

Participants

Participants will be college age males, 18-26 and self-identify as Jewish. Few studies have been conducted on this cultural group and the parental influence on drinking and the subset of male college students. A probability sample from the Survey Monkey national participant panel provides the participants.

Measurement

The results of the surveys will be collected and placed in SPSS statistics software to be analyzed. Finally, the results will be tabulated; surveys will be numbered, and the software will be used for data analysis.

The AUDIT and the PAQ are both relatively easy to measure. Regarding the AUDIT questionnaire, the participants rate their drinking habits on a Likert-like scale allowing for nuanced responses that were nevertheless quantitative in nature. Each score for alcohol dependency was tabulated to provide a cogent score that could be used to assess drinking, albeit from self-reporting rather than from observation. The 8-item AUDIT yields a singular score for each participant, and it was relatively simple to analyze using statistical means.