Parenting styles and alcohol consumption in college freshmen

Parenting Styles & Alcoholism in College Students

Parenting Styles in Relation to Alcoholism & Social Change

Parenting Styles & Alcoholism

Research regularly Conducted on Parenting Styles & Adolescents' Alcohol Intake

Alcoholism & Its Relation to Parenting Styles

Frequency & Beginning of Alcoholism

Theoretical Implications

Measures for Controlling Alcoholism in Adolescence

Sponsors of Community Awareness Programs

Limitations of the Community Awareness Programs

Lack of Interest from Sponsors

Differences in Other Ethnic Groups & Jewish Community

Ethical Implications

New York Liquor Authority

The given research is intended to develop a relationship between the parenting styles experienced by a child during his childhood and his/her propensity to develop alcoholism during the adolescence especially in freshman college year. Empirical evidences derived from prior researches have helped in developing a conclusion that there is a considerable relationship between the parenting styles and the degree of alcoholism in teenagers and adolescents. On the other hand, there are also other researches that predict the initiation of alcoholism in children and teenagers. The given research paper helps in developing a relationship between the parenting styles and the degree of alcoholism in college students. The rationale of this relationship is based on social change theories such as family system theory and social learning theory. Furthermore, the research paper presents a set of measures which would be effective in controlling alcoholism in adolescents. The given measures require the support of government, entrepreneurs, social figures, psychologists, community heads and the parents and have been devised considering ethnic and racial implications of the responses from the participants. The research paper further discusses the role of New York Liquor Authority in detail.

Introduction

Alcoholism is an increasing problem in our youth, especially college freshman students. Where pressure and a desire to act as an independent individual is overwhelming enough to force these students to opt for excessive alcohol usage. The parenting styles of the parents and guardians also have a considerable impact in this regard. Children having strained relationship with their parents tend to show inclination for alcoholism in later parts of their lives. There are various studies present (discussed below) which would help in demonstrating a relationship between alcoholism and the parenting styles faced by alcohol addicts in their childhood. All these studies help us reach conclusive evidence that there is a direct relationship between parenting styles and alcohol consumption patterns of adolescents and teenagers.

There are various researches (Changalwa et al., 2012; Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007) conducted by independent bodies which provide similar indications; according the report published by bbc.co.uk in 2011, a research was conducted by Independent think-tank demos which states that "The best approach was for parents to be warm and affectionate until the age of 10 and then combine this with more discipline. Then at ages 15 to 16 there should be more supervision. It found high levels of parental attachment when children were aged less than five significantly reduced the chances of them drinking excessively later in life."

Parenting styles have a considerable impact on the alcohol intake of their children (Changalwa et al., 2012; Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007). Since there are theoretical evidences present that children learn from their parents and try to develop behavioral patterns in accordance with the way they are treated by parents and guardians. It is important that parents develop a healthy relationship with their offspring which would help them develop strong personalities not opting for destructive patterns of behavior even under peer pressure. This research identifies the relationship between parenting styles and alcoholism in college freshman students under neutral as well as ethnic settings. Furthermore, recommendations are also devised for combating alcoholism in youngsters.

Alcoholism & Its Relation to Parenting Styles

There have been several studies conducted in order to prove a relationship between parenting styles and the pattern of alcoholism in freshman college students. One of these studies was conducted by Peckham and Lopez in 2007, which was intended to establish a relationship between these two variables. During this study, a sample of 441 college students out of which 216 were female subjects and 225 were males, was taken. Although the study was gender driven with a 2-group model used for sample division, the outcomes derived indicated that the parenting styles and the bonds of the subjects with their parents had an impact on the overall behavioral health of these subjects and also their alcohol consumption as a result. In addition to that, the study focused more on relationships of these subjects with their fathers only instead of both parents. However, both the genders showed that in a presence of permissive or authoritarian father, the subject was inclined to develop alcoholism as a result of depression and stress.

The findings of this research further suggested that parental influences on pathways to alcohol abuse through depression (primarily through fathers for both genders) are distinct from pathways stemming from poor impulse control (with influences primarily from the same-sex parents for both genders). The correlation was performed with the help of multiple-indicator, multiple-cause structural equation model (MIMIC). The study lead to a conclusion that father's personality and parenting style has more influence on personality of a child.

A similar study was conducted by Changalwa et al. In 2012. The intention was to develop a correlation between the parenting styles and the alcohol intake by the students of Kaimosi Teachers Training College, Kenya. A descriptive survey design was used which is best suited for surveys involving larger populations. A purposive sample of 32 randomly selected subjects was taken and a self-completed questionnaire was used as an assessment tool. This tool was suitable for acquiring first hand information from the subjects. To determine the content validity of the research instrument, the researcher identified the different types of parenting styles and their influence on alcohol abuse from review of literature. Test-retest method of estimating reliability was used to determine the reliability. This method administers the same instrument twice to the same group of subjects at different times. Data was analyzed by use of frequency distribution tables and Chi-square. Individual questions and the respective answers were analyzed with the help of chi-square test (Changalwa et al., 2012).

The findings of the study conducted by Changalwa et al. (2012) illustrated that there is a concrete relationship between the parenting styles and the alcohol intake which further affects the behavior of drug addicts and persuades them to get involved in activities which may fall under the category of disciplinary violation. However, a distinguished fact related to this study is its conclusion. Where permissive and authoritarian parenting styles have similar outcomes as the above mentioned study, the students who were raised under authoritative parenting styles showed more alcohol addiction as compared to students under uninvolved parenting style.

Another important and extensive study was conducted by Bahr and Hoffmann (2010). In this research, a major sample of 4983 adolescents was taken and it was established through the direct survey that Authoritative parenting appears to have both direct and indirect associations with the risk of heavy drinking among adolescents. Authoritative parenting, where monitoring and support are above average, might help deter adolescents from heavy alcohol use, even when adolescents have friends who drink. However, peer pressure was determined as an important factor having its impact on the overall negative relation between authoritative parenting style and the subject's alcohol intake.

Above studies (Changalwa et al., 2012; Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007) were more concerned with the view of adolescents themselves, but there are researches such as the one conducted by Beck et al. (2004) in which the views of parents have also been incorporated. In these researches, factors like behavior, alcohol intakes and depression levels of the parents were observed. Furthermore, some of these studies also developed a relationship between parent monitoring and alcohol intake of the teenagers and adolescents. It was established through these researches that in the given settings, parental monitoring has a diminishing relationship with the child's alcohol intake (Beck et al., 2004).

There were other researches conducted by Peiponen et al. (2006) and Choquet et al. (2007) where association between the disturbing behavior of adolescents and parents overall alcohol intake and general behavior was examined, it was concluded that where parents tend to have depression and other behavioral problems along with alcoholism; similar pattern of disturbing behavior and a tendency to develop alcoholism in future was also found their children.

Cumulatively speaking, these studies (Changalwa et al., 2012; Bahr & Hoffman, 2012; Peckham & Lopez, 2007; Peiponen et al., 2006; Choquet et al., 2007) helped in reaching a conclusion that parenting styles and parents' monitoring level had a considerable impact on the alcoholism in adolescents who are undergraduates especially freshman students.

Even if the factors like peer pressure are considered in evaluating this relation, it can be determined that a tendency of a college student to alter his/her behavior is also dominated by the parenting styles that he/she has experinecd during childhood. This is so because parenting styles have a direct impact on personality development of a child. Where the parents are willing to give reasonable independence to a child with a freedom of expression along with reasonable monitoring, such child is likely to develop a desirable behavior exhibiting confidence, higher self-esteem and self-control. These factors keep the child away from the control of peer pressure resisting any such attraction and need through family principals and values. A student may decline an invitation to take a drink by saying, Sorry I don't drink but the main motivator behind such resistance is usually the family values that are prioritized higher than anything else.

Frequency & Beginning of Alcoholism

In order to establish estimation about the frequency of Alcohol intake by teenagers and adolescents, there are various researches which have been conducted in the last decade. One of them is the research paper compiled by Lucy Holmes and Susan McVie in 2005. The research itself was constituted of the findings based on self report questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, school, social work, children's hearings records; teacher questionnaires, police juvenile liaison officer and Scottish criminal records, Parent survey and Geographic information system. The study was conducted by the University of Edinburg and involved all 23 state schools.

The research lead to a conclusion that weekly drinking usually begins at the age of 12 with no adherence to gender. However, a steady increase was observed till the age of 17 with an exponential increase shown from the age of 15. However, the rate of alcohol intake was rather low in girls as compared to boys. It was also observed that the rate of Alcohol intake was higher in the children who were not living with two birth parents. The study also focused on the factors that may have triggered the alcohol intake e.g. children of age 15 who reported alcohol intake beginning at the age of 14 mentioned that there family went through some turmoil such as parents' divorce, or serious illness, around 30% of the subjects gave affirmative answers (Holmes & McVie, 2005) .

Another important aspect of this study was the correlation of child's input with the parent's answer. It was found that the relationship between lack of parental monitoring and drug use at age 15 was particularly strong. Time spent engaging in shared leisure activities, consistency of parental control and level of parental punishment were also moderately associated with substance use. For the purpose of this research, a series of multivariate analyses were carried out using binary logistic regression (Holmes & McVie, 2005). The results of the regression analyses are presented as standardized odds ratios, rather than coefficients, to make them more readily understandable.

Another research conducted by Heron et al. (2012) supported the similar conclusion. The purpose of this research was to develop a predictive model for patterns of alcohol use in early adolescence leading to problem use at age 16. The sample comprised participants from the Avon

Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) and their feedback was received in the form of self-completed surveys comprising of 10-item Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Statistical analysis included, latent variable modeling such as longitudinal latent class analysis (LLCA). Various other tools like Bayesian information criterion and the Bootstrap Likelihood Ratio were used to evaluate the suitability of the data. The study developed estimation that at age 16, 29% of the young people were drinking hazardously and a further 5.6% were assessed as harmful drinkers.

Both the researches (Holmes & McVie, 2005; Heron et al., 2012) indicated that alcoholism has its roots developed in childhood. Where most of the children begin their drinking at the age of 13, the frequency reaches its height at the age of 15-16. At the age of 16, the alcohol intake becomes a habit ultimately leading to alcohol addiction.

Theoretical Implications

There are several theories which can be used for evaluating this positive correlation between parenting styles and intake of alcohol in college students. The first one of these theories is social learning theory. The given theory is based on an idea that a parent act as a role model for the child and therefore, the child is influenced by the parent in developing alcoholism (Barnes et al., 1986). It is parents who act as the inspiring figures for the children and who teach them to judge the appropriateness of their actions, same is the case with the alcohol intake. Since the primary exposure of a child to alcohol takes place in family settings, therefore a child's inclination towards alcoholism can be controlled by the parents at this stage.

It is also established through this theory that the nature of a relationship between a child and a parent has a considerable impact on their communication level as well. Through this communication, a child's social learning can be controlled. Hence, it is a common notion that if a child is briefed about the drug intake in the early childhood then there is a lesser chance that a child will develop alcoholism. There are also substantial studies which have provided concrete conclusions that if a child is clearly briefed about the hazards of alcohol intake by the parents, then there is a lesser possibility that such child will develop a habit of alcoholism (Cleveland et al., 2005).

However, it is important to note that degree of showing inclination to the message delivered by parents depends on various factors. For example, a teenager or an adolescent may derive different meanings out of messages conveyed by the parent, dependent on the profile of the parent and his/her parenting style. Where there are various variables which may have an impact on the communication between a child and a parent, a general notion is that there is a given relationship between the child / parent communication and the addiction of any kind ((Barnes et al., 1986).

Another learning theory which would define the relationship between the parental attitude and behavior of the adolescents is family systems theory. In this theoretical model, the relationships between the family members have an impact on their respective behavior. Therefore, a behavior of an adolescent can be viewed in the frame of reference provided by the family relations and communication styles (Anderson et al., 1994). The behavior of an adolescent is highly dependent on parenting style of the respective parents or guardians. Where the parent shares a warm relationship with such adolescent in the childhood, their relationship in adolescence is expected to be open where such person is expected to be confident and self-controlled with exhibition of healthy behavior. A child or a teenager requires a stable environment with moderate setting in order to develop a healthy behavior in the late phase of life. Therefore, if a parent has over controlling or authoritative behavior, there is a higher tendency that a child may develop a rebellious behavior in future. On the other hand, if a child faces too much leniency in the childhood with parents showing permissive parenting style, a child is likely to fall into addictions in teenage or adolescence (Ennett et al., 2001).

The theory further illustrates that a parent and an adolescent tend to share an effective relationship if the parent has been supportive but being moderately strict in the earlier phase of life. There is an undoubted consensus on the fact that there exists a relationship between the alcohol intake of an adolescent and the given parenting style, it is also important to determine what degree of parents follows an authoritative parenting style. In the findings of Beck et al. (1995), a major percentage of the parents would follow an authoritative pattern of behavior while dealing with the teenagers or adolescents on the subject of alcoholism.

However, there is no substantial study which would further shed light on this area. Family system theory has been used to define alcoholism driven by racism and ethnicity in various settings. Where there is a considerable difference between the upbringing and life styles of African-Americans and Blacks, it is also observed that the family relationships of African-Americans are healthier as compared to white families. Therefore, different normative patterns are observed when it comes to drug addiction and alcoholism. It is established that ethnic minorities share a closer knots to their parents as compared to Whites (Herd, 1994). Hence a relationship between the parenting styles and the adolescents' behavior can be explained by family systems theory. On the other hand, rationale of variations in such relations with reference to ethnicity can also be explained by using this model.

These two theories provide a different view of parenting styles and their respective relation to alcoholism (Barnes et al., 1986; Anderson et al., 1994 ). This is so because family system theory develops a relationship between the parenting styles of the parents and the alcoholism developed in adolescents. On the other hand, the social learning theory provides a relationship between the parents' alcohol intake and the alcoholism developed in the children at the later stage of life. The theory presents an idea that a parent act as a role model for a child and as a result, a child imitates the actions of the parent. Therefore, if the parent is an alcoholic, there is vulnerability that a child will also develop this behavioral pattern in the later state of life.

However, family systems theory also provides a view that a social setting in a family has a tendency of affecting a person's behavior. Therefore, instead of just relying on parenting styles, other sociological factors should also be considered. An example can be considered in this context, an alcoholic father with control issues can end up beating his wife; this attribute of family violence is hated by the children and they would resist becoming similar to their father in the initial stages of their lives but after unsuitable marriage or other disappointing factors they can too, adopt violence and alcoholism quickly.

Measures for Controlling Alcoholism in Adolescence

Where there is a general policy that alcohol can only be bought by individuals above the age of 21, the law is overruled by the adolescent population more often than one can think. Instead of having an ambiguous and ineffective nationwide policy, a community action which involves active parents' and teachers' participation is needed. This course of action is based on Family systems theory. The theory provides a clear implication that there is a clear relationship between a child's behavior in adolescence and the parenting styles that he experiences in the childhood. Furthermore, other than the parenting styles, overall family structure and social setting also have considerable role to play in the development of the child's behavior.

Considering this notion, a general awareness program needs to be devised on community level teaching parents the techniques that would be help them make their child aware of the hazards of alcoholism. The idea is not to take freedom and independence away from the teenagers and adolescents but making them aware of the danger that is imposed on them if they would become alcoholic. On the other hand, the parents will be made aware of the requirement of the child in terms of social environment and family settings (Gilligan et al., 2012). This program will create the awareness in the following areas:

Make the parents aware of alcoholism's hazards: In order to communicate the message to the children, the parents are required to be trained about this area. Since we are devising our model on the basis of family system theory, therefore, it should be well understood that in order to teach a child, a parent should be taught first. Where parents are alcoholics themselves, they will fail to deliver the respective message to their adolescent children. Therefore, psychology professionals who have dealt with the alcoholics earlier are suitable for training of the parents.

Develop healthy relationship with your adolescent child: Every child needs care and affection in balance with supervision. Same notion applies to an adolescent as well. The community awareness program should be headed by consultant and psychologists with suitable credentials who would deliver lectures to the parents in the particular community. It is important these lectures are tailored according to the background of the particular ethnic group which is being addressed. Making parents aware of the suitable parenting styles will turn out to be helpful.

Monitor your child when you are not around: According to the research conducted by Bernan in 1986, it was found that parents who keep their children under sufficient supervision manage to control the alcohol intake by them. The given action also controls alcohol addiction in the long run. Considering this factor, it is important that the parents are made aware of the monitoring techniques which they can use without being authoritarian. It is important a reasonable degree of trust level is maintained between the parent and the child and the parent manages to deliver the meaning of this trust so that the offspring does not violate this trust even in the absence of the parents. Consultants specialized in relationship building and child supervision would be required to head this area so that the parents attending these trainings are made aware of the effective techniques which would help them develop a healthy relationship with their offspring. The idea behind this measure is not to be authoritarian but develop a trust level with the child that would refrain him / her from using alcohol in the parent's absence.

Prepare your child you face the pressure of the peers: Peer pressure is one of the most common reasons of alcoholism in college freshman students. Since in college, the supervision of parents as well the lecturers is comparatively less as compared to high schools, therefore many students surrender to peer pressure and opt for using alcohol. A simple gesture of pleasure later on, leads to highly hazardous pattern of alcoholism. Therefore, it is important that a child should be made strong from the beginning in this area. Parents should play their role in building strong personalities of the children by exercising authoritative style of parenting. The consultants conducting trainings should also advice the parents about necessary techniques that would help their children overcome the peer pressure.

All these suggestions are made in the light of family system theory which presents a rationale that there is a significant relationship between the parenting styles and children try to imitate their parents. However, one major drawback of this theory is its non-extension to the adopted children. We have discussed earlier that hereditary factors play their role in alcoholism, and then the adopted children may develop alcoholism despite the fact that they are raised in a healthy family environment. Along with that, presence of various other social variables also plays major role in changing child's behavior. Therefore, measures will be required which would also address the limitations possessed by this theory (Gilligan et al., 2012).

Sponsors of Community Awareness Programs

As far as the community service is concerned, government can play its role in initiating it. Measures taken by Ministry of healthcare can use local hospitals, hospice service (healthcare) and other social services centers for initiation of such community awareness programs. Along with that, government can further play its role in pursuing the entrepreneurs and professional consultants operating in a certain locality, to initiate these community development programs in the name of corporate social responsibility. Furthermore, religious bodies such as church can also initiate such programs with the alliance of affluent members of the community or given healthcare service provider. Government can further regulate the supply of alcohol and control its availability to students who are under 21 years. Universities can also play their role by initiating alcohol management programs eventually benefiting the students; such programs should be made mandatory for the college freshman students (Gilligan et al., 2012).

Limitations of the Community Awareness Programs

Lack of Interest from Sponsors

Where Community heads, government, local universities, and organizations can play their role in regulating alcoholism, parents have the prime responsibility in this regard. The measures given above appear suitable for regulating adolescents' behavior. However, there are also drawbacks attached to it. In the given program, sincere efforts from the sponsors and the participants are required. If the program is conducted under government pressure but no sincere effort is made by its sponsor (community manager, entrepreneur etc.), then the program may lose its effectiveness. Secondly, despite the presence of community management program, here is a possibility that many parents may not acknowledge its importance and may not follow the guidelines taught in this program.

Differences in Other Ethnic Groups & Jewish Community

It was established earlier in this study that various ethnic groups show different pattern of behavior towards alcoholism. As compared to African-American communities, Whites are more prone to developing alcoholism. Since family relationships are highly strong and effective in these communities, therefore the ratio of alcoholism and rehabilitation in the later stage of it is relatively higher. Considering similar family structure in Jewish settings, it is important to understand that it is prohibited by Jewish religious teachings. Therefore, alcoholism does not appear to be common. But in the study conducted by Rabi Nahum Simon (2012), there is a considerable relation between Jewish history and pattern of alcoholism. Where in many societies, Jews are in minority, they are made to face hostility from other communities. As a result a feeling of inferiority develops which makes them prone to alcoholism.

Similar health programs can be used by the heads of Jewish communities and other sponsors on the given locality. However, religious figures may also use their influence in order to refrain the alcoholics from using alcohol. Here, the strong adherence of Jews to their religion can play a fundamental role.

Ethical Implications

The interventions suggested for controlling alcoholism also bear ethical implications for the Psychologists who would be running these programs. It is important that the ethnic and cultural background of the community which is being addressed should be considered well before actually initiating the program. These programs must not reflect any kind of racism or hostility. Secondly, some of the programs may require addressing its attendees on individual basis, therefore, it is important that confidentiality must be maintained and all the information related to the attendees must be kept confidential without using it for any other purposes (without prior consent) (Gilligan et al., 2012).

New York Liquor Authority

New York Liquor Authority is the sole governing body which is rested with the responsibility of managing alcohol sales and purchase in NY. The body is responsible for regulating the procurement and sales to the general public. It ensures that the alcohol vendors have licenses to do this trade and also comply with the state laws while dealing with the adolescents. The Agency conducts informational seminars regularly, as well as setting the minimum standards for and certifying schools to provide ATAP (Alcohol Training Awareness Program) training. These programs help licensees to comply with the Alcohol Beverage Control Laws, and emphasize how to stop underage drinking and sales to intoxicated persons. Their goal is to provide a safe environment at licensed establishments as well as preserve the health, safety and welfare of the citizens in our communities (LAMP, 2012).

Although this body is solely responsible for regulating alcoholism in NY but it needs to be more proactive towards its approach. Advertisements of alcohol and its presence in their neighborhoods where general law and order control is not present is one of the serious concerns. Necessary measures needs to be taken in this regard which includes suspending the vendors who are found providing the alcohol to underage individuals. Secondly, assistance of local police and other authorities needs to be taken for regulating availability of liquor (LAMP, 2012).

Conclusion

Alcoholism is very common in college freshman students. Some of the reasons identified for such behavior are poor parents' supervision and permissive / authoritarian parenting styles. The research is intended to develop a relationship between the alcoholism in adolescents and the parenting styles of their parents and guardians. Through literature review, it is established that authoritative parenting style is most beneficial approach for developing healthy behavior in adolescents. In addition to that, the research further reviewed the impact of ethnic and social factors on alcoholism. Comparatively analysis of African-Americans and White communities helped us reaching a conclusion that ethnic communities showed lesser inclination to alcoholism.

The study further reflected on the suitable measures that were required to control adolescent alcoholism in the light of various theories, a framework is devised which would help parents control their adolescent children and refrain them from alcoholism with the help of government, healthcare organizations and other local sponsors. The given program emphasizes on training the parents about the hazards of alcoholism and making them capable of delivering the message to adolescent students. There are various ethical implications for the psychology consultants and other sponsors who will be attached to this program. These ethical implications need to be considered before, during and after conducting such community welfare activities. The rationale behind these measures is the direct relationship between the alcoholism in the college students and the parenting styles of the caregivers.