Paton, G. (2010). English Spelling

Paton, G. (2010). English spelling 'too difficult for children' the Telegraph. Retrieved online: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7880189/English-spelling-too-difficult-for-children.html

Children may struggle with English spelling because of the inherent inconsistencies in the language, notes Paton (2010). Pointing out that words like "too, true, who, flew, shoe and you all employ different letters to represent the same sound," some analysts argue that English may need to reform its spelling if it expects its young students to master the language faster. Masha Bell is a literacy researcher who posits that a simplified spelling system would improve the performance of school children from the UK, where Bell's research is based. The UK, notes Bell, "has a far longer tail of educational underachievement than any other European country," (cited by Paton 2010). In fact, Bell goes so far as to blame English spelling inconsistencies with high rates of incarceration due to low academic achievement. As Bell points out, Finnish school children can learn how to spell in just about three months, compared with the three years it takes English spellers.

A reform of spelling systems seems like an outlandish proposition, especially given that English spellings have evolved over the course of several centuries. English spelling is entrenched, and furthermore, the language does not have a governing body that could make sweeping decisions regarding standardized spelling. Paton's (2010) article is terse, addressing only Bell's work and research on the subject of English spelling and how its inconsistencies affect student academic achievement. However, the implications raised by Bell's research do call into question the efficacy of the English spelling system. If indeed children are falling behind in school to the extent that their career options become constricted, then it may very well be time to discover and uproot the causes.

Changing English spelling would be a tremendous task that would require the cooperation of multiple English-speaking countries. Unlike Finnish, English is spoken in a variety of vernaculars around the world. Changing the spellings in one country might be a foolish idea considering the impact it would have on global commerce and communications. For the time being, English speakers are stuck with their convoluted and counterintuitive spellings.

Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning and Technology 14(2): 50-73. Retrieved online: http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:MCde5nPIwZgJ:llt.msu.edu/vol14num2/sydorenko.pdf+Vocabulary+acquisition&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgl7TOE4zwgnWxhskhRMoYnTRNpwtCzX8p4K4Wo8LrquWnx5DTK9K5Mb86gK0g2YcplfxrZ7raNourCb1vK-mHU2gOcuuzxado0scXrqrFRN5mWQkacOiKY8LDWNynFegHFmp8Z&sig=AHIEtbR9P0KkuyoJjwjZScUfaKmJTmvJgw

Vocabulary input modality has become increasingly relevant due the advances in technology. Especially in the field of second language acquisition, input modality has been shown to have a significant effect on vocabulary acquisition. Multimedia methods, a "combination of print, audio, and imagery" has been shown to improve reading both reading and listening comprehension. The reasons for the phenomenon include that multiple modes of input facilitate information processing. However, it is not clear exactly which input modes facilitate second language acquisition best. Vocabulary is crucial to language acquisition, which makes discovering input modes helpful for the design of educational materials. The current research offers an experimental study to show the effects of visual images, visual images plus audio, visual images plus captions, and visual images plus audio and same-language captions on both the acquisition of vocabulary and learner attention.

Participants in the study included twenty-six Russian language learners. Groups were assigned to one of thee experimental conditions: video, audio and captions; video and audio only; and video plus captions only. Dependent variables were measured with written test, aural test, and final questionnaire. Results show that learners exposed to video plus caption and video plus audio and caption scored higher on their written tests than on their aural exams. The group exposed to the video plus audio only scored higher on the aural exam than on the written exam. The group exposed to the tri-model method of input scored higher on word meanings. Sydorenko (2010) concludes that captioned video aids written word recognition as well as word meaning/comprehension; whereas non-captioned video enhances listening comprehension and possibly conversational vocabulary learning.

The implications of the Sydorenko (2010) study are wide reaching and include the design and development of vocabulary-learning software and other educational tools. Especially as the study applies to second-language acquisition, the results can also be used in the context of English language learners in the classroom. Because different input modes impact language and vocabulary acquisition in different ways, it may be important to understand what the end results of learning are: conversational (and therefore audio in nature) or literary (and therefore written in nature).

"Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read," (2006). National Institutes of Health: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved online: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm

Phonemes are defined as "the smallest units composing spoken language" and are therefore different and distinct from the written letters used to represent them. Phonemic awareness instruction is also different from phonics instruction, which combines the visual letter forms with the aural sounds. In contrast to phonics instruction, phonemic awareness entails listening comprehension only, as it teaches children to hear and speak sounds in everyday speech without focusing on spelling.

A meta-analysis of research on phonemic awareness instruction shows that phonemic awareness is a highly effective method of instruction. The act of manipulating phonemes in words proved effective across many different teaching conditions and also applied to learners from different age and grade levels. Teaching phonemic awareness also yielded significant and measurable reading improvements vs. teaching without phonemic awareness.

The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2006) therefore recognizes a direct causal relationship between phonemic awareness instruction and improved reading among learners. However, the Institute does not recommend using phonemic awareness exclusively, as the sole method of reading instruction. Phonemic awareness instruction is "one necessary instructional component within a complete and integrated reading program." There are also multiple methods of introducing and implementing a phonemic awareness instruction program. Further research is needed to determine which methods work best under which circumstances.

The article proceeds to outline the role of phonics instruction, which has proven highly effective for students who have difficulties with literacy. Fluency and comprehension are also addressed in the report. Comprehension in particular has been shown to be age-dependent. Computer technology may be an effective adjunct to other language instruction tools.

The research has a strong bearing on teaching and language instruction specifically because of its being authorized by a government agency. Moreover, the article offers a thorough outline of various teaching strategies and interventions. The variety of techniques presented in the article can be combined for form a thorough literacy instruction program.

Kendeou, P., van den Broek, P., White, M.J. & Lynch, J. (2007). Comprehension in preschool and early elementary children: skill development and strategy interventions. In McNamara, D.S. Reading Comprehension Strategies. Routledge.

Kendeou, van den Broek, White & Lynch (2007) note that research suggests that language comprehension begins before systematic school instruction, that is, prior to enrollment in school. Moreover, the types of comprehension strategies pre-readers use to comprehend events are similar to the strategies used when developing reading comprehension skills. Comprehension and basic language decoding skills develop independently of each other, the researchers note. Research suggests that comprehension strategies should be adopted as early as possible.

Comprehension is defined as a complex set of skills and activities that lead to the following three primary components: interpretation of textual information; application of prior knowledge in assessing the text; and the construction of a "coherent representation" of the text such as by being able to identify a theme (p. 28). By the time a person reaches adulthood, comprehension becomes second nature. For young learners, though, comprehension strategies are crucial to ensure effective language acquisition and educational achievement.

The research demonstrates unique findings that can be of great use to educators. In particular, the authors point out that comprehension and decoding strategies develop simultaneously in young learners. Comprehension is usually considered to be a progressive stage in literacy development when in fact it is a concurrent process that can and should be taught at the same time as vocabulary and letter recognition skills are being taught. The use of multiple forms of media in both the language decoding and in the comprehension instruction is also helpful.