Jungian Phenomenology and Police Training
The methodologies selected for this study were the meta-synthesis approach developed by Noblit and Hare (1988) and a content analysis technique described by Neuman (2003) and others. The meta-synthesis approach allows researchers to draw broad substantive interpretations from various sources. According to York (1994), the meta-synthesis technique is a type of research that "systematically compares studies in order to interpret meaning, to clarify research foci, and to resolve existing substantive, methodological, or interpretive problems" (p. xiii). This approach allows the researcher to "compare and analyze text, creating new interpretations in the process" (Noblit & Hare, 1988, p. 9).
The seven-step process used in the meta-synthesis methodology developed by Noblit and Hare is set forth in Table 1 below.
Table 1.
Noblit and Hare's Comparative Method.
Phase
Description
Phase 1
Getting started. This step involves finding an area of interest in need of synthesis.
Phase 2
Deciding what is relevant to the initial interest. This phase involves conducting a review of the material based on sample criteria.
Phase 3
Reading the interviews. This involves reading and re-reading the interviews and identifying interpretive metaphors in each.
Phase 4
Determine how the interviews are related. In this step, the interviews are "put together" and relationships between them forged. It is suggested that a list of key metaphors, phrases, ideas and concepts are made for each study. The metaphors are then compared and juxtaposed. Three different relationships are possible: a direct comparison using reciprocal translations; a refutational comparison where the content oppose each other; and a grouping of interviews that represent a line of argument.
Phase 5
Translating the interviews into one another. Simply stated, the metaphors and themes are compared with each other while leaving the central metaphors intact.
Phase 6
Synthesizing translations. This phase requires the researcher to make the parts of each interview into a whole through synthesis of the information.
Phase 7
Expressing the synthesis. The final step requires the researcher to write up and report the results.
Source: Noblit & Hare, 1988, pp. 26-29.
The focus of the interviews conducted for this study concerned a police crisis training module designed to improve officers' understanding of mental illness and how best to assess the needs of the mentally ill. The above steps were used to identify common natural meaning units concerning what the eighteen individual officers' experience were during and subsequent to their training, what aspects of the training initiative were regarded as being most valuable to them, and what aspects of the training could be improved. The results are presented in the form of word tables that are congruent with the American Psychological Association (APA) Publication Manual (5th ed) which states: Word tables present qualitative comparisons or descriptive information. For example, a word table can enable the reader to compare characteristics of studies in an article that reviews many studies, or it can present questions and responses from a survey or shown an outline of the elements of a theory. Word tables illustrate the discussion in the text" (p. 161). This same approach is used to develop appropriate summaries of relevant studies of personality development in the succeeding chapter.
In his text, Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Neuman (2003) reports that, "Content analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing the content of text. The content refers to the words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated" (p. 310). According to Gottschalk (1995), "The methods used in these content analysis studies range from simple counts of words, to counts of parts of speech, counts of classes of words, or counts of categories of subject matters" (p. 3). In some cases, such content analysis methods do not employ any specific counts as described above, but rather seek to identify recurring sequences of emotions or feelings, which they may or may not link up with changes in vocal qualities (paralanguage variables) or body movement (kinesic variables) (Gottschalk). Further, some content analysis methods ignore issues of the magnitude of any types of themes or subject matters while still other content analysis techniques focus on establishing a measure of the intensity or magnitude of a subject matter or psychological or behavioral dimension (Gottschalk). For the purposes of this analysis, both counts of words and counts of parts of speech were used to highlight recurring themes and issues of concern.
Recapitulation and summary of interview results.
Table ____.
Most valuable aspects of the training.
Interviewee
Observations/Comments
Key Metaphors and Themes
Better understanding of mental illness: I think if anything I've been better able to differentiate between what mental illnesses are amongst the people and who is a legitimate candidate and who is faking it because we have a lot of people that come into the system that are faking it. That's probably the biggest thing.
An example: Like a lot of homeless people, when they want somewhere to sleep, they'll try to get themselves into PES by saying that they are suicidal or whatever the case may be and now I just try to figure out what's going on in their head and what they need.
Field trips valuable:
1. I'd say that the dual diagnosis thing was definitely a key thing to learn about and the triple diagnosis as well because that's the thing that we as police officers tend to encounter more than the average Joe Shmoe going to see a shrink for the first time or the 8th time. So for us we deal a lot with the dual diagnosis, the drugs and the mental illness combined.... you can usually see it in their eyes more than anything else. Like when you're talking to them. You can actually see it in their eyes. There's just something that's just not right more than just being under the influence of drugs. A lot of it is just bizarre behavior. They jump out into the middle of the street or just random instances. We see them on the street and they are doing something funny so we stop them. Or else it's like calls that people are suicidal and they need police attention and you talk to them and you're like, OK there's something off with this person. That's usually it.
2. One of the best parts of the training was actually going out there and seeing these people that are in a somewhat clinical setting but not being a cop just being Joe Shmoe citizen walking in.
Improved understanding and recognition of legitimate mental illnesses.
Also intuitive aspects of real-world applications:.".. see it in their eyes."
Field trips were valuable addition to training.
The location it was given, it was great. The people that run it. Mike Sullivan is just, I personally like him. I think he's a dear man. He's really impassioned about what he's doing. But the training itself, the fact that they took us out in groups and took us to the different facilities where - you know I've driven by this facility a million times and never been in it. And so that was really good. To go to the diff facilities, see how they're run, see what the process is.
And even more important was having the people there that are suffering from some mental illnesses, sitting. We had a guy sit there and have lunch with us and to just be able to talk to someone like that and realize that they may be crazy but they're still - to have them articulate what goes on when they're in a crisis or having some sort of problem or just an ongoing thing - was really educational.
It was really enlightening and educational. So, that was the best part for me, was just talking to the people that are having some sort of clinical, or have life-long clinical problems.
Training was appropriate and timely: "Yes, I, I think the training was great and I know eventually all the patrol will be trained. Um, in SF we do have a major problem with the homeless/mentally ill and I think it goes both ways."
Identified alternate approaches: "I learned from the class. I'm more into using MC or contacting mobile crisis, something I've learned and passing it off."
You have to begin thinking new strategies and new ways to approach them and to handle the issue, which is, essentially, getting them to a position where they can even be taken for a mental health observation - 5150 or 5250, if it's serious enough. or, if there has been a crime committed by them, then it become's also, there's a criminal issue is involved and we then have to get a look at that as well."
And, so one of the benefits of the class was looking at the way we approach people with these kind of mental issues, from a different perspective.
Development of empathy: "One of the benefits of the class, that I learned, and not only from the instructors, but also from some of the patients who were brought into the class with mental histories, was - they're often just as afraid of us as we are of them. and, so that brought in a whole new perspective. I had never realized the degree to which they were afraid of us and often feel as though - now the situation becomes very life threatening for them. Because often they don't know how to follow the protocol, how to properly respond to police officers. and, so it just supercharges the whole event."
The training] gave us an opportunity to ask questions and answers, but a lot of the questions and answers we were unable to ask before the training and that it was always: well, they do this or they do that and I know the community thinks well the officers do this and the officers do... so we had an opportunity to interact." think it's one of those things that's been welcomed. I hear nothing but positive things. There's a few little thing, little glitches, in any kind of training, that people understand or people don't understand but they still feel that it's important. In the beginning of the training, before we had this training, I would say that it was, you were dealt this card and this is how you dealt with mental illnesses."
Field trips and dual diagnosis components were valuable.
Field trips were valuable: "I think my perception on mi was changed by actually going to places where they lived, the centers where they were being treated at. Because, usually, the ones we meet on the street are homeless. There's other issues that are going on. But when you got to see them at the centers and where they lived, you could see that these were productive people and they're like anybody else out there."
But actually bringing clients into the system, and actually being able to sit there and have lunch with them, and actually ask them questions and stuff.
It's just not being thrown these bi-polars, and just these terms thrown at you. You're actually seeing somebody and you're hearing their story. They are telling you: 'Oh, I tried to commit suicide so many times' or 'I hear the voices and I'm hearing voices now, but I'm able to cop with it'. And you're, you're kind of, it's like you're, this is a real person - it's not a term, it's not a thing." have been] a front line responder for many, many years, generally when I see people they are in a crisis situation. So that became my understanding of mental illness, crisis situations."
All police officers are kind of like drivers. Everyone knows how to drive, a car. it's the little things about different types of cars - say a motorcycle to a truck, you have to handle them, drive them a different way. I think as police officers, being the professionals that we are, we all know how to quote/unquote handle or deal with the mi. I just think this class kind of clarified or tell us a little bit more about the vehicles - a little bit more about the persons, the diseases, the illnesses out there."
Scarcity of resources: "The best thing I got out of it was different resources. But again (uncomfortable chuckle) the rain on the parade is, resources are good but they're not there. They're not there for the officers. Even like when I called today and told you about just the problem that I had. Like - and I'm not saying somebody should jump when somebody says 'I'm a police officer' - or this or that.
But I'm putting that out there to show you that some sort of legitimacy behind my call. And if, we should all be here to help each other out, rather than give each other the attitude.
And I know the attitude is needed, the thick skin is needed because of who we deal with. But it's true.
It's who we deal with. We need to have thick skin. We need to have a certain amount of... So, I'm not... I've been frustrated when I've tried to call people.
We've, me and my partner I think are real good. He loved this class. He got a lot out of it. I did too."
Police as drivers metaphor.
It showed that there was a greater range of services out there. and, it's not so black and white. They can either address the situation or walk away from them. That, if they're willing to cooperate, that there's other things that we can do. We can try and plug them into different services. And if it's, lets say, a family thing or a neighborhood thing, we could always make a phone call to, like, MC. And maybe they could come out and maybe not do a 5150, but talk to them and maybe get them some help so the problem is resolved or we don't have to go back there.
Field trips valuable: on one of our field visits we went to a, like a transitional housing. Which I didn't even know was in our district. Which is kind of a good thing. In that if they can kind of take care of business and don't have to call the police that shows that they're running a good operation.
And it shows that, kind of showed me that these were people who had been 5150ed and instead of just kicking them out, they're given a little more supervision, a place to stay, maybe a little counseling, a little guidance. So maybe they can successfully get on with their lives."
Training was timely esp. re: suicide: "I was particularly please with the training, that was with Blue Suicide. I thought that it was very timely, because I think that in the field we see more and more examples of people putting police officers in situations they're confronted with an individual who has a preconceived notion, an idea, of what he's - the end of his actions are." think one of the nicer things was that we were able to get to know some of the instructors a little bit more and some of the role players. And I also thought that it was very, very conducive to have people that had mental health issues in the past speak to us."
Suicide by cop - that one was helpful because you kind of know which people are going to want to do that. Sometimes you kinda don't. but, it's always good to get information on that and stay up-to-date on all that."
And the elderly, 'cause I like old people. I really do, and I feel..."Adults, I don't know, sometimes it's easy for me to get frustrated with them. I seem to have more patience with old folks. I don't know. I like old people. I tend to go that extra mile for old folks."
And the illness in cultures, I learned about that when I was working at the TerraBelle. Cause there was all kinds of different cultures out there. There was: Chinese, Russian, you name it - it's out in the TerraBelle. And it's kind of interesting to see how different cultures handle their mi. I mean, I've found them locked in closets. Chained in the garage and s***. And I was like: What are you doing? You can't do that. You can't chain the guy in the garage 'cause he's got a mi." think everything was helpful. It helpful and it was all interesting. And I was surprised by the level of enthusiasm the instructors all had - to be honest. I didn't know what to make of it. You know, most of these classes we go to, we just kind of show up and yk, people do their thing. but, at this one, it was so different."
Good food: "First of all - food was great. It was incredible!
Staff credentials: But, just the people that were there giving this training, I mean, these were, some of the people that were there were actually pretty high up in the...[respected in the field].
Length of training: "And it surprised me that the City wanted to actually invest this sort of time and - a week."
Liked other field trips: "What I did like was the visit to SFGen, that psych ward, that was, out of all the visits, that was the one that I thought was the most interesting. 'Cause once we 5150 somebody, we don't know where they go. So, it was interesting to see where they could go."
Attended pilot training course in May 2001:
thought it was something that every officer, in any department should have. That kind of training is invaluable, especially if you work in the street, which most officers do, and you are dealing with the mentally ill and you may not even know it. And it's great to help identify those who suffer certain conditions, in identifying them and how to talk with them, how to deal with them, how to communicate." actually requested a refresher on this and, unfortunately, because of staffing and so forth, it wasn't granted."
New information might have been things that were more clinical in nature. I know that we weren't told to diagnose, but you couldn't help, through the training, to be able to identify certain characteristics of certain types of diagnoses [such as] dual diagnosis, cognitive disorders, and the major mental issues, mental disorders. I do know that active listening was something that was pretty important. And in the dept, as a whole - and I shouldn't say that - I should speak for myself."
Active listening should be taught in other areas of the dept, not just when you think you're dealing with someone with a mental disorder. But the tools around active listening really apply to those with mental disorders and it actually gives you license to ask certain questions and behave a certain way, without fear of overstepping your political bounds."
Interviewee also attended pilot program in May 2001. "Things like dual diagnosis and blue suicide, which is something that affects, obviously, police officers to a great extent. Some of the medications and some of the symptoms and things like that. That's where I feel that the class was most beneficial."
Active listening beneficial: "Even before the class I really had a lot of experience dealing with mi, especially 5150 type things. Now, there's obviously a big difference. The 5150 thing involves a person who can't care for themselves so that we have to take them to psychiatric emergency. But most of the people don't really fall into that realm. it's kind of - they're not a danger to themselves but they, they're definitely meet the criteria as far as the mi goes."
But, yeah, as far as active listening and just kind of seeing where somebody's at and seeing if it - being able to identify a little better if they're in a crisis mode. And if they're not in a crisis mode there could be something that set them off, that's not necessarily a crisis."
Suicide by Cop: "Suicide by cop was one of the better classes that they had during that. 'Cause it's eye opening. it's something everybody would hate to have to go thru."
Speakers and Field Trips: "They were really good speakers. They really capture the whole essence of what's going on. And the site visits were good, to go out and just to kind of see, you get a feel for what's going on. Those are some of the things that really stuck with me."
Schizophrenic virtual reality found useful: "That's interesting because somebody can tell you well they're hearing voices - like 'what are you talking about?' - I hear voices too, but it's usually my conscience talking to me. So you... But that was really interesting."
Suicide by Cop: "The Suicide by Cop was kind of interesting."
Dual diagnosis component: "I'm not always great in dealing, in being able to recognize when somebody has a mi, when that's combined with alcohol or drugs. That's very difficult for me - and how that might affect a person. but, I think if it's just a mi, whereas four or five years ago, I wouldn't necessarily know if this person is, I wouldn't be able to detect the difference between sometimes their fear and them being resistant or combative or just not compliant with me."
If there was one course that I could take, if there was one part I could pick and say: 'Teach me more about it, that what I would do.'"
Dual diagnosis component. "This course has kind of actually, like I say, allowed me to stop and take more time and sympathize with what's going on. It sounds like it's a scary thing. And this course kind of really opened my eyes up to that it has got to be exhausting to live a life like that." would recommend this course to anybody. I would strongly recommend it."
Elder abuse and active listening.
I think one of the important things about the training is that it almost puts you into the mindset and the footsteps of those with the altered mental state. So, you kind of see things from their view point and their perspective. And I think once you gain that understanding, it's easier to step back into your own role, as a police officer, and think 'oh, maybe I shouldn't shine that flashlight right in his eyes and maybe I should talk softly and things of that nature."
Field trips: "I think what was also helpful was to go to the various treatment sights in SF and actually speak to the people who were being treated there. You know, the residents there. And that does, that definitely gives you a clearer understanding of the difficulties that these, that those people have to operate under everyday. and, I think it's great for officers to see them in a different light, i.e. you know, like when they're normal, when they're reading a book, when they're watching TV, when they're talking to friends than, you know, when they're ripping off their clothes in the middle of the street. it's kinda nice to see the, you know, the difference."
Table ____.
Experiences prior to, during and subsequent to training.
Interviewee
Observations/Comments
Key Metaphors and Themes
Covered previous ground and supplemented it: The training gave me more resources and it gave me a little bit more instruction on mental illness because we did get some training in the academy. it's not like we went out onto streets and we were empty-handed. So we did have a little bit of training this just kind of... I guess it just brought that training back out again.
Voluntary participation in training is preferable: Yeah, I think voluntary would be better because when people are required to do something they don't want to. So just something, just a refresher like this is what's new in the field and in case you forgot... this. But I think learning new things and resources that are available because things do keep opening up. Even as they close things do open up as well. So having a refresher course would be good for us because things are changing constantly.
Reinforced previous training. Refresher training is important but should be voluntary.
My experience is extensive. Even prior to law enforcement or any adult life occupations, my mother is clinically depressed. And I grew up in a household where it really impacted her and us, a lot. So, I was familiar with it as a child. But I, obviously didn't know what it was. I had a vague idea. And then I worked for the Dept of Public Health before I joined the PD, as a paramedic. And again I had some exposure there. Throughout my career I've always, sort of, understood what was going on, as far as people having mental health problems. But how to deal with it and what to do seemed limited."
Before the training, my knowledge was all based on just sort of what I learned going along, dealing with people. But I had really no deep knowledge of it. And that's where it stood, up until October."
And most of what we do now, contrary to what you see on TV, is not hostages, it's mostly people in crisis - it's suicidal people. So, that also - it just helped me with that, with the training that I had there. it's helped me deal with people that are in crisis there."
So, it makes me just a more mindful and more considerate of what's going on. Besides the fact that this crazy guy wants to jump off the roof. Now I want to know what's going on with him. What's the cause?"
Suicidal mentally ill
Scarce resources require alternative approaches: I think the biggest thing for me is using more with the mc -I think calling mobile crisis or having the officers contact mc. That's the biggest change for me, because it's kind of off our - they'll take them from us. And that's a big thing. it's important you know to get the officer, right now with shortages on the street with officers and cutbacks and things like that it's important to get that officer going.
Previous training was good but refresher training need sooner: And prior to the class, and I think one of my things that I wrote: I was, it was more afraid of the mentally ill and I still sometimes get those fears - you know -'cause you don't know how they are going to react and stuff. And standing off and standing in the distance so they're Not grabbing for your gun or your getting on hands on situation w/them. I probably have a little better understanding, probably not great, but a little better understanding. The class was excellent.
Training provided insights into thought processes of mentally ill: "Another thing where it's helped - I'm also a hostage negotiator. So, that has increased my understanding. I'll tell you, it's very, very frustrating dealing with the mentally ill as a negotiator, because they are seeing or hearing different things."
Field trips were valuable: "It was nice to know what's goin' on behind the scenes at the hospitals and stuff. but, we kinda, at that point we're out of it. it's kind of like after we make our arrest with the DA's office to see what goes through."
Anything can trigger a mental health episode:
Good morning..."
Action over inaction needed.
Training provided insights into possible thought processes of the mentally ill.
Field trips were valuable addition to training.
Anything can trigger a mental health episode:
One of the biggest challenges in dealing with the mentally is.".. initially [is] trying to understand what the problem is at the moment, what it is that's bothering them, what it is that's setting them off. It could be something that someone said to them in passing. It could be as innocuous as that or, in fact, it could be something as serious as drug induced or alcohol induced and they're having their kind of psychotic moment and otherwise they, for the most part, function in society as any other normal human being. But because of something that prompted them to either take drugs or get involved with alcohol, they now have basically flipped the switch and they're - all the problems in the world are now staring 'em square in the face. And they just, they're overwhelmed and they can't handle it. So you begin to look the time element involved, the temporal element. That, if need be, if we can, for whatever reason wait it out."
Protect and serve - everyone: "It's our job then to try to do our best to, in fact, save these people. If we can't, if it is a life threatening situation, then unfortunately our options are limited and that's kind of part of the job too."
Need for empathy in dealing with the mentally ill to establish a rapport.
I've had approximately 23 years in the SFPD so I've seen, in a vast way, how we dealt with people with mental illnesses. And I think with this training it kind of gave you a way to think outside of the box... I'm always encouraging other individuals, like the community to be involved in this thing."
It was just, basically, you got the call, you responded out there, you asked them, 'How are you?' You feel suicidal? And if they didn't say yes, then you said, okay-well, take your meds and just leave and you would just go on your merry way. Now, what you're doing is, you're taking them in a different view and a different step, to where they're - where you're able to actually give them services or refer them to services, like the Mobile Crisis center, or things to that effect, when they didn't fit the 5150 criteria."
Impact of medication or failure to take medication on mentally ill behavior: "Either they're not taking their medications or they're doing other things, other things are on board - drugs or alcohol or something like that. It was just really good. and, actually, just being one on one and talking to them, and asking them what they expected from the police was nice to hear.... Okay, this person's this because they're not taking their meds or something else is going on."
That blank stare is something else that's going on. He's not pulling my chain. There are other issues. And it's like, okay I have to step back and deal with this situation in a different way, take a different direction than I normally would've. And that's what I've kind of learned."
Quality of interaction improved: "These are other issues that are going on that all it does is shuffle a person from one to another. It doesn't solve anything. And it doesn't help the criminal system or anything like that. If you can talk to them, in a level that's comfortable with them and understand and be a little more patient, and understand what's going on with them. Then you can think: 'Okay, well maybe this person's a schizophrenic, or this is a manic / depressive that I'm seeing in front of me."
Scarce resources: "I've never...any time I've called MC they've transported. So they'll put them in the back of their car. And they've asked me: 'Well, can you just follow behind?' And I've done that. There are no problems with that. But sometimes they are getting overwhelmed also. You call, and they're not available. it's like, it's going to be a two hour delay."
We don't have time with this. We don't have time for this.', because you're being, the resources are being stretched so thin. And so, it's basically nobody wants to deal with it. But your going to have to deal with it because if you don't deal with the initial mental health issue, then it leads to something else - that is criminal. And so, those were the issues. but, we're in a Catch 22, they want us to do it, we can't do it. And it's like, it's never ending."
Dual diagnosis component valuable: Other officers have asked me...like I've gone on maybe some of their runs. I was a back-up. And I've seen certain things that they kind of overlooked. And I go: 'Well. Do you mind if I just ask some...' And I ask some questions, which changed things. So, the path that was going to be taken was, throw them in the wagon and take them away. We didn't go - let's just go to MC. If they don't want to deal with them, that's fine. But it went a different path. And I've made, like the photo copies and the handouts on different drugs and the different, the way people act for certain things."
If they're confused, yk, I think back to the training and maybe it's not just them being obstinate. Maybe they just don't understand what I'm trying to tell them, for whatever reason. If it's a chemical imbalance in the brain or a mental deficiency, I think it just improved my communication skills, straight across the board.
An example: "I had an individual that appeared to be lost. I mean they were wandering in and out of traffic. They weren't really hurting anybody, but they were putting themselves in a dangerous situation. I called them over and it was just as if they weren't listening to me. They were like someplace else.
Rather than just hook them up and just take them on a 5150, I took a little extra time to find out - yeah, the person was suffering from some form of dementia and wasn't quite understanding what I was trying to get from them."
But ultimately, because I took them to the station and kind of sat them down, talked to them. I was able to find out where they lived and what was going on. And I probably would've done that anyway, but it made me a little more sensitive to what was going on."
Generally we walk in. People are bouncing off the wall. We have to restrain them. They're not listening to us. We thought they were just being totally obstinate at our commands and just refused to cooperate. And it was a, an intent on their part. [After the training]: Because we were always the bad guy. Even though mom and dad called us there because Bobby or Jane was trying to kill them, or trying to kill themselves. Once we put hands on, now the family's upset with us and it's a crisis situation for us as well. but, after the training, it kind of gave us a little insight, in terms of someone being on meds, off meds. Why would anyone every go off their meds if, when they're on their meds, they're in control, so to speak. And it was quite insightful." mean, after doing this for 24 years or 23 years at the time, and not really, totally understanding what was going on, even with the academy training and kind of the hands on... A lot of our training was actually as first responders. This was when you really see, in some sense, what they were talking about in the academy and had no idea what they really meant about it."
An example from the training that was particularly useful: "I was put in the position, they needed someone to be a role player, and I was volunteered, by a selection process - which I think was set up (laugh). And I was put in a chair and one of the workers from health services was trying to interview me. And they put several police officers around me. And they just kept yelling - yelling at me, generally 'You pig,' 'You that'... Nothing nice. And I just wanted to what she had to say, but I couldn't hear her. I couldn't understand what she was asking and it was difficult to verbalize the responses she was looking for. And then, afterwards, she said: 'That's exactly what's going on in their mind.' That was amazing. I mean, that was almost overwhelming. 'You're kidding me - no way!' and, yeah, in the course of the training, that's what I came to realize, it wasn't that they didn't want to hear me. it's because these outside forces, that I could not see, were giving them other instructions or just drowning out my voice. So, that was, I was really impressed with that."
People do not listen to the police but to the voices in their heads.
I was on a separate run down at the Fell and Market, down in MUNI, downstairs underground, and this lady came up to me and said that she... I watched her for a while. I watched her for about 3 minutes, she was staring at me and a lot of these people just want to have contact with another human being, another somebody that's going to talk to them.
And they know that as a police officer that we will give them a certain amount of time. 'Cause you know we have to talk to them and figure out what's going on with them.
So, this lady came up to me and stated that she wanted to slam a telephone receiver against her head. and, basically, I thot it was just pure, she wanted to get a reaction out of me and see what I was going to do about that statement.
So, I just kind of, not really ignored it, but just didn't give her a reaction that she was looking for and talked to her and found out that she had just gotten out of jail and that she was going back to her half way house in Hayward.
That's why she was taking BART. And she missed smoking her cigarettes. So, with just a line of questioning, I went from - oh, thank you officer, have a nice day, I'm going back to Hayward, to the initial statement she made, where she said she wanted to bash a telephone receiver on the side of her head. So, that's one, just one of many incidents."
These techniques are] all temporary solutions to the problem. And it's like one big band-aid. I guess some of these programs - I don't know. They're just temporary, where if everybody really is concerned, if you really want to help these individuals. And I'm not doubting people's, yk, if they need help then you get them the help."
Impact of medications and failure to take medications: "We get some of the people who are just, yk, acting out - they're off their meds. They're, sometimes they're called to our attention by just members of the public, who are driving by. Sometimes they're called to our attention by family members. We have a lot of homeless. And a lot of times they're, they're not, yk, committing any kind of serious crime but they're, yk, laying on the ground or they're talking to themselves and they - people don't know what else to do."
So they call the police. And we go out there. We talk to them, yk, find out if they need medical attention. And if they don't fit the criteria 5150, we pretty much just talk to them a little bit and part ways."
After the training]: "I try to encourage people to go to this training. 'Cause, well, very nice training. But it's also handling the call and going back to the service. If you can maybe take a little extra time, maybe make the phone call, make the referral or have the family members get involved. it's not like our problem, it's really your family's problem. Get them to make the appointments and maybe drive their relative to the Dr. s appt. Make sure they go in their. Maybe tell the Dr. what's going on and let the Dr. know if it's helping or not."
And that if you try them on a medication and it doesn't work, you've got to try another medication. If this therapist or this Dr. doesn't work for you, try another one. it's worth getting it right." started my twentieth year the first of July. I was a Deputy Sheriff for three years. People from the streets would be brought to. So, I would have a lot of interaction with the criminal element, which was incredible - the education."
Also], I had worked as a VISTA volunteer, down in E. LA and came back and worked in the City and had the opportunity to take the Sheriff's exam. I'd been interested in law enforcement for a while and I thought this would be a good introduction and prelude to eventually going out on the streets and dealing with a much bigger world."
And I think all too often, too much responsibility is put on the police officer responding to the scene, an incredibly limited knowledge of the person's history that he's dealing with. What was particularly bothersome were, there were people that knew this individual and of his situation at the theatre - that either failed to, or not provided the opportunity to communicate those to the officer. And it shouldn't be lost on anybody involved in looking at the aspects of this case, is that the officer being closest with the individual, himself, had his uniform shirt sliced by a knife. and, you really have to wonder to what extent an officer has to go, putting himself in danger or in harm's way to adjudicate a situation where you have a crowded theatre. With a movie that is particularly violent in nature, but specifically, at that point in time, there's been random gunshots being fired during the movie. So, it's just a recipe for disaster. You have a lot of bad things happening at, all at one time."
So, one of the things - the aspects of this training was the idea of the officer's role in Blue Suicide. and, particularly poignant, was a letter written prior to the young man, or the individual, taking the actions that he did - that would lead the officer to employ lethal force. And the individual writes, 'I'm sorry that you had to be the one to respond today. It wasn't my design to implicate you, as an individual, but as a police officer, I knew that you would have, be the one to respond to a call of this nature, and would have to deal with this."
Need for mental health counseling for law enforcement as well: "And one of my concerns, as a police officer is the mental health of police officers during the course of their career. A lot of times, even before their police or their law enforcement career, where they're thrust into an incredible position when at any given time, they would be in a situation to either preserve life, to employ life, to save a life or, conversely, to take a life."
You talk about the police culture, the mental health culture and that, but police officers are not supposed to look for help. Because people come to us for help, we're supposed to have the answers."
Value of community policing:
The calls that I handle now are quite different from the calls I would be handling in a radio car. Because, as a foot beat officer, my main objective, as far as I can see, is to be out there and let people see me. To be a visual deterrent, but more just to be someone that they see a police officer but they have the opportunity to talk to the cop. "How's it going today?" "Good" "What you up to?" And you get to develop a relationship, you get to develop a relationship with the people that work in the stores, the shop owners, the store keepers. You know when they're open, when they're closed, who's supposed to be in the store - behind the counter, who's not supposed to be behind the counter.
So, I alluded to police work being an art earlier and I firmly believe that it is and I think that walking a foot beat really facilitates that opportunity to make his mark as an art."
My approach has always been pretty much the same. And like I said before the training was more of a reinforcement."
Responses to suicide by cop.
Prior to training: "The only thing that I knew - you come across somebody that's mi, you take them to PES, drop them off, fill out the forms and you're out of there. That's all I knew. I didn't really, to be honest with you, like a lot of other officers, I didn't really care what was wrong with them. I just knew they were mi, take them to PES. I didn't know if there were medications or this or that, and I didn't know about any of that."
Impact of medication and failure to take medication after training: "It did give me a little bit more understanding about what's wrong with people and maybe some of those people in the past, that I'd taken to PES. All they needed to do was take their meds. But I didn't know that.
And after the training, and finding out what meds do, which meds have what reaction to people and how long they take to kick in and all this kind of jazz and how long they've bee off of them. And that's probably the biggest thing that I got out of it, is the medication issue."
Your run of the mill person, I mean even your run of the mill person that's a cop hater, they're not violent right off the bat. Sometimes they're not violent right off the bat."
And a lot of times you get the person in the street, walking down the middle of the street or something like that. And it's usually just the behavior. And maybe, I can't say being unkempt, because we've got a lot of homeless people and they're not mi - they're just, dirty. So it's mostly the behavior. That's about it."
After training: "Are you on medications? Where's your doctor? When's the last time you've seen your doctor? Who do you live with? Does somebody give you your medication? Do you take it by yourself? When's the last time you took it? Have you been on different kinds of medications? Do you have any with you? Do any of your family/relatives have any medications that you can go over to their house and take?"
After training example of a case where he used the info: In Tarabell, after we came back from the training. I went with two officers that work for me. We all went together. And when we came back, not too... yeah, there was a guy. He was obviously mi. But he was really violent. Our answer to that, in the past, was - dog-pile, cuffs, restraints, take him to the hospital. And actually it worked out pretty good because, Pam, Elaine & myself, we went to the run and everybody was ready to dog-pile. But I mean, that was the practice, because I think we all got different things out of the training. And between the three of us, as it turns out, we ended up not having to dog-pile this guy.) He was a rather big guy - so it would've been a big fight.
And actually we talked to him, we got him in the car with no problem. We got him down to PES. We stopped and got him something to eat. Well, he was hungry. He was hungry and I know when I get hungry I'm cranky. And so we had something to eat. We took him down to PES. We talked to him and I mean... 'Cause he was hell-bent on not being cuffed, something about being handcuffed. But Pam and Elaine were able to talk to him long enough and find out a little bit about his history and stuff and he let them cuff him. He let them cuff him. Got him in the car, no problem. But I think that would've been a huge fight and he probably would've gotten hurt. He probably would've gotten hurt because he's a big fellow. He was a big fellow and there was like ten of us. And he probably would've gotten hurt for no reason. I won't say 'no reason', but I mean trying to take him into custody, probably
And his whole thing was, he was being really violent. He was off his meds. and, as it turns out, the person that he was living with, that was supposed to be dispensing his meds had gone out of town. And they left his meds, for him - daily.
And they were in little packs that he was supposed to take but he couldn't - he couldn't get it. So, he didn't take any. So, really all he needed was meds. It worked out pretty well. I was pretty surprised. 'Cause, like I said, the three, between the three of us putting our heads together and talking about all the stuff that we heard in the class: 'Oh, no, wait a minute. They did say this...' 'Cause three people go to a class, they're all going to hear different things. So, that worked out pretty well."
Prior to the training: "I was working at South Station. In fact, when I went to the training I was still working at So. And that consists of everything from Market Street south to King Street pretty much.... Down there, there's a lot of homeless and drug problems and a lot of people with mental issues. So that was, it was everyday. At least a couple times a day. And now it's a little less, but I still see them every once in awhile."
After the training: "[the training changed the manner in which interviewee responded to mentally ill] Because I understood it better, much better. In fact I didn't really know. I can't remember what I thought caused mi or whatever - before the training. I just kind of thought something happened to you, that was messed up in your head. Whatever, I didn't know it was about chemical imbalances and medical problems. I remember somebody in the training said that, you know, mental illness is medical. And I had no idea. I didn't know it was an actual, medical problem. I didn't think about that. I didn't know. Once you understand that and once you understand that the people that you're dealing with aren't just doing it because they're being an a******, but because they actually don't have any opinion about how they act. They just are the way they are because it's a problem. And it's easier to act, to deal with them."
It makes you a little more compassionate, but it also makes you a little bit more understanding of just what exactly certain people with certain issues... what's, what they're doing is because of the, whatever they're doing - is it because of the mental issue, or is it because they're just being difficult. Because of the training I can sweat that out a little better too."
Just recently, it was last week, we got a call of a guy who was on the freeway right on the on ramp. And we got a couple calls, that there was some guy who looked like he was about to jump off. So we get out there and we look around and we don't see anything and my partner's like: "Hey - there's a guy over there." and, lo and behold, there's this guy there, he's hanging off the other side of the overpass and it looked like he had his arm hooked on the rail and he was sort of nodding his head on and off. And my partner was trying to coordinate the different resources and I'm like - you know, I'd better do something now 'cause this guy might not want to wait until everybody decides to show up. So, I tried to talk to him, from a distance. Because I remember during the training the said that you don't want to - they might be in their own little world - you don't want to spook them and they might fall. And I didn't want that to happen. So, from like a distance of thirty feet, I just tried to talk to him. I didn't introduce myself as a police officer right away, 'cause you know, I didn't want him to look at me as an authority figure when, if he was really, if he just wanted to jump, I wanted to approach him more on a relaxed scale. So, I tried that, and he didn't respond. So, I sort of realized that he wasn't, he didn't want to talk, for some reason, or he wasn't able to talk. So, as he was nodding with his eyes closed, I snuck up behind him and grabbed his jacket and my partner ran over and we pulled him over, over the rail to our side and put him in handcuffs. But his issue was, he was drunk and he had been doing coke and he was up for three days. And he also had some personal issues. But that doesn't mean because he was drunk and on coke, he didn't have a mental problem. Because, he obviously did. So, that was the latest issue."
After training: "When I have somebody with a mental illness that commits a crime or something I'll try to first understand their problem if I can, their mental problem - a little bit. Because if there was a crime that was committed and it was committed without their knowing. If it was something that happened because of their mental issue [i.e., trespassing].
Trespassing, if they just happen to wander onto somebody's property and, they started screaming at somebody at Jack 'n the Box, or Wendy's. Maybe it's not because they're drunk, or maybe it's not because they're just trying to be difficult and maybe they have a mental issue. And I try to look at that before I make a decision on it."
So, the City's got money. but, you've got to have the right people interested. And that's what needs to happen. They need to take it seriously. If they don't and they do it half-assed - then they're going to have half-assed results."
Absolutely. I mean seriously. That's the only reason I volunteered to do this. Because I'm hoping that somebody's going to hear this and take it seriously."
The training allows me to not rush in. Okay, you've been trained to kind of dissect the situation on an intellectual level here instead of going in brute force. That's it."
Relational constraints when one officer has completed training: "I think that if someone has taken the training, and they're in the company of other officers who have not, that that person, who has taken the training -should, pretty much, have first call on what happens. And it's a difficult thing to enforce, I know that, and you personalities and you've got senior officers vs. younger officers, you've got ranks."
Completing the training] makes me sound and feel more professional, regarding the subjects. Having a, just a more working knowledge of what's out there and what ails people, that type of thing."
I've worked in the busiest stations in the city and I continue to work in the busiest district in the city now, which is south of Market area. So, we tend to see more people that have these types of problems than maybe most cops throughout the city. As far as specific examples go, I think just talking to people and understanding when they're telling me that they are suffering from something and I realize that maybe they are using a crutch, such as alcohol or drugs to kind of self-medicate themselves."
To kind of be able to get into dialogue with them about that. Whereas maybe before I wouldn't have known that there's a reason... there's also a supplemental reason why somebody might be taking drugs or might be leaning on alcohol. Because, for them, it gives them the self-medication aspect of it all."
So being able to communicate with people in that respect has been good. And even saying things like: Well, looks like you might have some type of issue going on with your mental health and also this drug thing."
People I think, kind of respect that and like it. They're not... they don't tend to be shy with cops. They realize that I'm not going to right a book about them or I try not to judge people negatively."
More professional
Training helped with communications: "Like the way that they see stuff or I mean and the (I don't know if I'm going to call them disabilities) or the varying degrees of illness that are out there. I mean some people will take meds. Some people won't take meds. Some people just are flying by the seat of their pants and we... "
We can't make, we're not doctors, we're not nurses. We have to take the information that we were given in the class and try to use that to make a determination on how we can best help them, in that situation. We're doing no long-term care. We're just doing a band-aid, until we can get them from point a to point B."
After training: "After I took the class we went to this, I remember, we went to a call outside a. Well, the guy was walking down the street and he was just talking to himself and he was, it was like those sentences that don't connect, and they jump around from topics that are not connected. And you're standing there and the officer that was with me had also taken the training and so is was like, 'Okay, let's try to use this.'"
But, this guy was just like, I mean we talk into our microphones and he's just like "Well, who you talking to? Is somebody on Mars?" And I was like: "No." "Is that the Pres. " it's like: "No." And they jump around because, and he had like no shoes on and they have no ID and you're trying to get some kind of a straight answer so that you can do what you need to do. And hoping that you can get thru that to a place where they're going to be able to talk to you. And he's just jumping around and like a...."
In his way of thinking and what he was saying to us. And he wasn't really doing anything wrong, it's just that his behavior was, had attracted somebody's attention. He was wandering in and out of stores. He's disheveled and he doesn't have any shoes on, and you just say I can't arrest him, he's not really doing anything wrong. But he's also not, he doesn't meet the 5150 criteria. But he also doesn't, he just, it's really hard, because there's a fine line. And so what do you do with him? it's like 'can I take you someplace, can I give you a ride someplace? What can I do for you, how can I help you?'"
And it's just like, you feel like you're beating your head against the wall sometimes. Even though you have the information and you have the skills and you're trying to work thru, or get thru to them, it sometimes, you're just like, it's just you hit a wall. And you're just like: okay what do I do with you now?"
Band-aid
Beating your head against the wall
Prior to training: "I guess it was limited to just conventional, what I would have called mental disorders. And I didn't have a whole lot of personal experience - like in my family. Although I'm sure, now, I know that there was. Things that were indicative, but I just had no idea. So, I guess from my environment I, prior to being a police officer in SF. I came from a fairly small place, small central valley town. So, I guess from both a medical standpoint and even a personal standpoint, it was limited."
After the training: well there's things that the training helped me with that it has been helpful on a very conscious level, I guess you could say - more day-to-day. Things that might not necessarily help me in the performance of whatever I'm doing as a cop, but just have been very helpful in general. And that's more of just an awareness and that is sort of like a 24/7 benefit, I guess you could say."
And then there's actually certain techniques that I've been able to use - very limited though because of, I think, my assignments that I've had since taking this training that have helped me as well. So, I guess when I'm saying the awareness, not only disorders but basically having an idea that, or being aware of the vast numbers of people that are affected." guess I was always under the impression of was that someone with a mi, was always mentally ill - 24/7, all the time. and, so, on a, conscious level now I'm aware that there's definitely different levels of mental illness in terms of how bad a person is being affected or how severe someone might be affected. And how much that may or may not have an impact on what they do day-to-day."
When I went through the Academy there was no training. So, my first instances of dealing with mental illness were real eye openers. And I think I probably, know that now I saw it in it's most extreme forms."
You don't know if it's 'cause there's drugs involved, there's alcohol involved or whatever this person's going through something more severe than you can understand. and, and in those situations when you're trying to deal with that and whatever reason you're there in the first place for - that can be very difficult I think, for a cop."
I'm more aware of is the type of answers you get from people and the triggers. What seems to trigger that guy wasn't the fact that I was a cop, it was just the fact that I'm an unusual person in his comfort zone. That bothers him in my example. And I've had other that make, that's the impression I've been left with - is that it's not that I'm a police officer."
The questions that seemed to help the most, as simple as it sounds, is usually when I ask them if I can, what I can do to help them. It really changes things. They truly believe - he's asking my opinion, he's not telling me to do anything, he's just asking me. It doesn't mean that I'm, necessarily, going to be able to do it. but, it think when they're so used to hearing commands from cops or other people..."
Before and after training: "Over the last couple years my contacts with people in mental crisis have increased, a lot. I've noticed it a lot more, people who seem to be in a severe crisis a lot more than it was, say a couple years ago. And this training, I think what it allowed me to do was to kind of step back and approach these people from sort of a different perspective."
In, maybe, taking the time to listen a little bit more about what there needs are and exactly what it is they're looking for or maybe why they've called the police. I've kind of stepped back and probably give a little bit more time."
Whereas before, if they weren't necessarily a 5150, I may have thought - or driven away and thought, 'wow, I wish I could do something'. And this has kind of given me a little bit more leeway and a few more options to provide to these people. So, in that sense, it's kind of been a big impact for me."
Impact of active listening component: "Like, I just had a man the other day, who was adamant that his ex-boyfriend was breaking in and, I don't know - changing all the buttons on his shirts. And he was adamant that he had put speakers inside of his head phones. And everybody left, and he was obviously in distress and I finally said to him, I just stopped. I said 'What would you like me to do?' And he was like 'I just want you to come look at the headphones and I just want you to look at the phone.' And I spent, actually, quite a bit of time with him and then, the more I listened to him - he told me he had quit his job that day because he needed to be home, because people kept breaking into his house and he put up bars and did all this stuff."
And I, the more I listened to him and I thought, if I leave this man here he's going to hole up in his house. And who knows where he's going to be 2 to 3 days from now. and, at that point, I thought well, he's not necessarily 5150 but let me call MC. Where I may not have done that before." I thought, I can't just leave him, so I ended up calling them and they referred me (actually, which I didn't know about) but they referred me to (when someone has HIV, they have their own crisis clinic to call). So, that was good information for me. And then, like I say, I called them. And they said I should 5150 him, 'cause it could've been medical. He was very paranoid and to leave him there... But it was, like I say, I probably normally, if he wasn't 5150, I'd've left. But this time I was able to stop and hopefully try to ease him. "What do you want? What can we do for you? Well, you've obviously called. You're obviously upset." So, and I mean in that sense it's helped."
Asking what the police officer can do to help was shown to be most effective.
Prior to the training, I just had contacts on the job. Been on the job 8 1a?"2 years. Been in 5 different district stations. and, so I've come across my fair share of, won't say mi, but just altered mental state type people. and, instead of learning through experience that sometimes you need to talk quietly to 'em and not go through the entire police rigmarole of, you know, "Turn around, get your hands up," sometimes it's more appropriate to calmly talk to them. And instead of having to learn that the hard way I think it would be great if, maybe even at the academy level, that we could, you know, teach these tactics to the recruits, so that they don't have to learn the hard way." mean, clearly someone's under some kind of mental distress and he's giving you, you know, the 1000-mile stare and you kind of question whether he's under the influence or anything or just simply out there. It may be better to quietly approach instead of shining your light right in his face, and "hey, why aren't you listening to me." Sometimes that leads to, you know, very aggressive fights. And it's much better talk people into cuffs than it is to force them physically into cuffs, say."
Certainly the quality with the, you know, minimizing the confrontational aspect certainly has helped. and, you know, being a supervisor I think it's important to, you know, model appropriate behavior for your troops. When they see me or other supervisors dealing with altered mental state people in a different, more calm way it think that has a tremendous amount of impact."
The hard way.
Table ____.
Opportunities for improvement.
Interviewee
Observations/Comments
Key Metaphors and Themes
Training "just right": I think that they did a really good job. And given the amount of time they had they covered a lot of topics. I think pretty much everything that we need, cuz we need to deal with the immediate situation. I think pretty much everything that we, as police officers, was covered. So I really don't have complaints about the thing. In fact, I encourage a lot of my coworkers to go to it.... I always tell people, "Take it. it's worth it. it's beautiful. The foods great." I did really like too.
Need for 24-hour service: Oh my god, Yes. Yeah, it would be so much better for us. And especially it helps too that they have more training and more background in specifically this stuff.
Training was comprehensive and appropriate; refreshments were appreciated.
Need for empathy: "My interaction with people... I've always tried to be compassionate. Again, having some childhood background. But now I think it's - I deal with the people with a little bit more understanding. I think the more important part is dealing with people. I know that there's more resources now, there's different avenues to go down, different options to explore."
Need for 24-hour service: "And the one thing that I started doing, almost religiously, is every case where it looks like it's going to be (unless it's just a hard core - have to get them to the hosp and 5150 them) MC has become like it's, that's kind of dialed in my phone - speed dial. Because I just call them and they show up. They're absolutely amazing."
Need for 24-hour service: Yeah, that would be great... And I guess that's a budget thing. But they should be rolling 24 hours a day and more than probably one unit.
Refresher training needed sooner: The problem is it's been so long from the class till that and as my position as a sergeant. The big thing is I like to reference my officers back to the class and the training.
Impact of medication and lack of medication on mentally ill: "there's even those that are in the financial district that are mi - that are working, that are able to carry their, you know, their jobs off everyday and stuff. They can do it because they're on... The problem is when we get the call and they are acting strange and all this. Now you're in the financial district or Nobb Hill and you have somebody that's a little off and know one's sure why this person's acting strange, and a lot of it, I feel now, is (you know) because they are getting that medication, so they're able to balance." Also, "I had a problem with that because we were again, going through this negotiating stuff and they were talking like with officers on some of these different drugs. I wasn't too much of a proponent. They were pushing the 'hey it's okay,'you know, if they're taking their, you know, medication, they're gonna' be okay. It balances them out."
Concerning the cross-cultural aspects of the existing training: "One of the things that this is: It's a tool you are gonna use. it's, they're out there. We're dealing with 'em. I bet if, you know, most stations - especially your downtown stations, you know. Here, you know, we have Union Square, Fisherman's Wharf, you know, Chinatown. I could take you for a ride and you're gonna see these people all over. You know.
Apparent assumptions concerning the efficacy of medications and their appropriateness. Refresher training needed sooner.
SF has a lot of resources. If you're livin' out on the street - something's wrong there - for the most part."
In negotiations, people of all walks of life can behave abnormally and this may be the result of various psychotropic medications or the failure of individuals to adhere to a medication regimen and discerning such pharmacologically-based behaviors from other factors that affect the mentally ill is enormously difficult. Dual diagnosis training, therefore, should be covered to the maximum extent possible.
I've been on the police force, now, for twenty years. The scariest calls, generally, that I've run into are individuals with mental health issues. Often it can be anything from somebody who is just having a psychotic episode and hearing voices and responding to the aberrations that are apparently frightening them. It can be something from that all the way up to a wild man, machete waiving around and threatening peoples' lives at the scene, and everything in between."
Impact of medication and lack of medication on mentally ill: "So, over the years as I began to handle more and more of these calls, (not least of which is because the number of mental institutions, custodial institutions were closed down, beginning under Gov. Reagan because of tax cuts, through to the present day) we have more and more of an outage, in the general public, among the general public out in society. And they are, at just about every level, there's threatening - the public feels threatening - threatened by them. And responding to those over time, I began to realize that the most difficult aspect of handling a case, like that, from our perspective, is the fact that there is no rationalization, that they can't, you can't, reason with them. And in the absence of reason, kind of, all bets are off."
One thing that was very helpful was there was a pharmaceutical company there, had sent a representative. And they had a virtual reality machine that you put on. And you would see kind of, from a schizophrenic/paranoia's perspective."
You would see kind of how they were reacting to meeting with one of their psychologists or psychiatrists. And it was really interesting 'cause, I think it was only about a year later that the movie with Russel Crowe came out - "A Beautiful Mind." And having actually put on the virtual reality mask and seen how, basically from their perspective, how reality kind of gets mixed up and confused. It really helped me to understand the character that was being portrayed by RC. And I thought the film was really brilliant the way it handled it. There was the girl that kept playing out in scenes, the young girl.
And there were the different points you began to understand and finally the character that RC was playing, suddenly there was an epiphany and he understood that this must be a hallucination because the girl never grew any older. And I, it's very interesting personally, from my perspective, to begin to understand a mental illness to that depth and that kind of effect and see how people, it can really overwhelm them.
And that's through the advent of modern medication and things we can pretty much control a lot of the different psychotic illnesses that are present today. but, again, one of the big issues is getting these people to take their medications. Yeah, well it really helped that I had been through that virtual reality machine. Cause there were a lot of subtleties in the film itself that I'm sure went right over most peoples' heads. In fact I discussed it with the person I took to the movies and she didn't - she missed a lot of the very subtle aspects of the schizophrenic."
Probably the diversity. The class that I was actually teaching, the diversity in different cultures. I think where you have one person from the Asian community telling me - he does an excellent job of relaying that. Then you have somebody else from the African-American community. Then you have me from the Latino community. And I think, and even though some of them are different, I believe most of them are similar, in a lot of ways and probably could condense that - shorter. Or maybe even just one or two speakers. And I'm not speaking to cut somebody else out of the loop, I'm just saying as I listened to the officers, I read the feedbacks that I got, I think probably that's one of those ones that you want to keep them close or you just want to grab their attention. I think possibly it should be more focused as for law enforcement and investigations."
Training should be mandatory but that approach may backfire because of police culture: "I think the training was good, but I think that it should be mandatory. I don't think that it should be something that, it's elected that you go to."
Cross-cultural training not needed: "The only thing I heard, from other officers, that they didn't really particularly like - that they didn't need it, was cultural, the cultural aspects. A lot of the officers go: 'This is stupid. We don't need it.' That was the only complaint I ever heard from a few officers. it's like, I don't know if it was the presenters. 'Cause I know some of the officers that came in, that came, I don't know if it was their personality or whatnot. But that was about the only thing they didn't want to hear about, was the cultural stuff. it's like the different cultures and they have to act a certain way and stuff. That was the only negative thing that they didn't really want to hear about."
The Haight St. crisis intervention. That was so dry, so boring. I didn't get anything out of it. I think people got a little defensive on some of the things that were being said - in terms of how the cops responded to the Haight St. clinic.
They didn't want us in there and, yk, we come when we're called. If there's and issue, we've got to take action. I'm sorry, this person's bouncing off the wall - they're coming with us. You called me 'cause you couldn't control them and now you want me to... it's like - come on.
And on the other side it was like a house aflame, you only call me when you get somebody you don't want and now you want me to come clean up your house. You knew this person was a problem initially.
So, I don't know if it was personal 'cause I did spend a lot of time in the Park Dist., so I did work Haight St. And it's probably in the 80s and maybe early 90s. So, that could be personal. That could just be my perception. but, it was a little dry."
What did I like about it? I like the resources. but, what could we improve on? The availability of the resources. I mean that pretty much sums up my whole issue."
Making program mandatory may backfire because of police culture: "If you try to force this, then people are going to show up like they do to AO and other classes that we're forced to take, with a closed mind."
It was a very enjoyable week. I mean, it was, we were definitely treated like adults. Wonderful location. Nice catering. Not really a lot of dead time. Everybody had their presentation. It flowed along pretty well. Awful lot of evaluations. That eval after, like, every hour/half hour, that got to be kind of - a lot. I would, yk, fewer evals, but if they had you be a little more descriptive, that would have been okay with me."
Need for specific training with juveniles: "[but] that's an incredibly different issue and topic unto itself."
Re: dual diagnosis component: "It takes a while for a police officer to gather the courage and the wherewithal to be able to try to deal with someone in that aspect. Especially with the incredible lack of training, I mean we're dealing with people that are schizophrenic, that are on medications and stuff we can't even pronounce, much less determine what the cause and effect of this medication is. And it's an awful lot for us to be asked to deal with, other than the generic 5150."
Gender reference to 5150 facility: Fortunately my relationship with the folks over at the 5150s facility were, for the most part, pretty good. There was one fellow named Don who was a real, real good guy. And there were a couple gals that were real nice and treated us like we were not the f****** enemy. Which made the experience a lot easier. But there were a couple of people there that.... They hated men. They hated cops. They hated cops that were men. it's like, I had one experience where the guy that we were 5150 ing wanted to leave with us because he was so upset at the way that she was treating us. And it was f****** because they ended up putting the guy in a 4 point restraint. And he never deserved to be in that. That still bothers me to this day, that she abused her power to that end.
Desperate need for juvenile-specific services.
I think it's the biggest failure, is that juvenile crisis thing. Because if the hosp doesn't want them and the parents don't want them, we are stuck with them.
Now, what do we do? We drive around with these kids for 8 hours - looking for somebody to take them. Nobody wants them. Child protective services is not going to take them. I mean none of the, Huckleberry House, none of those places, they're not going to take them, especially if they're violent. Now, what do we do? We are stuck with this kid. And we don't know what to do. And no one will take them."
Need for more information on how to calm people down: I think probably the one thing that, it was covered, but not really well...I mean, they could give us a little bit more information - How do you calm people down? I think before you can even start talking about meds and all that other s***, you've got to get people to calm down."
And they didn't really tell us too much on how to other than 'try and talk low - don't be aggressive' but there's got to be some other tricks of the trade to get these people under control - other than beat the s*** out them or just dog-piling or something like that. There's got to be another way. And they really didn't cover too much of that."
Did not particularly like some field trips (appeared ambivalent about human brain activity): "Some of the things I think that maybe they could do without were some of the visits to the mental - I don't know what... It was interesting but, and I'm sure somebody must have gotten something out of it, but I just didn't really. I felt like when we went, a lot of it was - it wasn't important, as far as our involvement." think a couple places it was, we sat and we spoke to the residents, and it was just kind of a 'bash the cops' sort of thing. And of course they have mental issues but it's not something that you want to listen to when you don't have to. So, it wasn't, I don't think that part was instrumental in the training."
The virtual schizophrenia thing, I thought that was kind of, that was - stupid. That was just ridiculous. I'm sorry, that's too Disney for me, I mean, I thought that was needless. That was circus, I didn't like that at all. It was amusing, but I don't think it was applicable."
Re length of training: "Not even, I don't even think you need that much. I don't think - I think a 4-hour block. If you've taken the course within the last two years. If you've taken the course within the last, say, two years, then a refresher course on a AO 4-hour block I think should suffice. Officers can't handle too much more than that at AO on a particular subject. it's just too much to ask among all the other subjects they have to follow."
Need for 24-hour MC service: "MC, to me, is if I'm kind of caught in a quandary. I don't really... I really think that this person needs somebody to come out and maybe talk to them but it's not one of those definite - where I can make a split second decision on the scene. But whereas I don't feel comfortable maybe to leave the person right away, 'cause I want to kind of explore where they're at right then. But the shift I'm on now benefits me a little more because before, when I dealt with a lot of 5150s, I was on the late nite/mid-nite shift and they/the hours. I think they stop at 10 o'clock or something like that."
Preferred laminated resources card over 8-1/2 x 11" sheets: "Well, the best - like the card that I'm showing you. Any small type of card, that could fit in our pocket. See, because most cops they take... you get a big piece of 81/2 x11 sheet of paper. Goes right in the trash can. But something that's small and that, yk, maybe laminated even. That's just easily... put this in your pocket, this is a new thing that came down from mental health, they want...maybe use this to help you out.
It could include such things as like what medication certain people take for certain illness. So if a person tells you they're taking Viapan or things like that so you can maybe readily use it as kind of a reference guide. That, I think, would be really helpful."
Shorter refresher course would be useful: "We wouldn't need to do a week. I mean but just like to give us information. Cards that we can have. I mean phones numbers that've been updated. Places, close or moved. If centers have more.... Make it short."
Refresher course and pocket-sized handouts w/resources. "I mean I'm sure things like cost have a lot to do with. I don't know if a course would be most helpful for me but maybe every so often if - I'm sure things change in terms of the facilities. You know, both inpatient and outpatient, where people can go. I think if, maybe every two or three years, just a something simple as a packet could go out to everybody with the phone numbers and addresses."
Laminated resource cards: "Well, I mean, but if you have - like we hand out a domestic violence referral. And on that referral card, which it says we'll give, it has housing information, legal information, psychological information (where to receive counseling)." mean, it has a lot of information on that one card. And at least you're giving the person something. And they can shove it in a drawer and may not look at it for two years. But someday when they get tired of that person, they'll open up the drawer and they have the information."
Field trips created discomfort: "I enjoyed it to the hosp to meet the staff but I didn't necessarily enjoy touring the floors. I felt very uncomfortable - I thought one would've been sufficient, maybe. but, to go in each one and view these people in their state and view them in their rooms, like an animal. I just didn't like that at all. I mean, that probably was part of it. But one would've been sufficient."
Like an animal.
Logistical implications of theory: "I think the theory has certainly been addressed, you know. But in the practical application there still are some gaps. Because, you know, the trainers aren't police officers. They can't come out here and see that - hey a lot of the homeless people have 18 carts. Well, you know, when you take them into custody, you guys gotta move the carts and then you gotta call DPW. And then, you know, are you going to issue them a property receipt for all 18 carts, are you going to count through everything. So, there are these practical limitations."
And sometimes people with altered mental states don't, they don't, really, value hygiene. So sometimes it's really hard to get up close and you know try to talk to them. So..."
Table ____.
Recapitulation of interviewee recurring words and phrases.
Word/Phrase
Count
Under the influence
Suicide by cop
Alcohol
Homeless
Mental illness
Suicide/suicidal
Drugs
Medication(s)
Mental health
Figure ____.
Discussion
The Importance of Police Training Today.
In their book, Training the 21st Century Police Officer: Redefining Police Professionalism for the Los Angeles Police Department, Glenn, Panitch, Barnes-Proby and their colleagues (2003) report that, "The client of every profession is society. The police officer performs a service for the greater good much as doctors sustain public health, lawyers defend individual rights, and military personnel protect their citizenry. Such service to society implies that the professional police officer understands the social context in which he works" (p. 6). Today, this concept of service requires a community policing approach that takes into account the enormous social diversity that is increasingly characterizing American society. As Glenn and his associates emphasize, "Every modern metropolitan area is a palette of rich demographic differences. The concepts underlying community policing and diversity awareness must therefore pervade the entire organization, including its training functions" (p. 6). Police training models differ from state to state and even district to district, but there are some commonalities involved in many approaches that have caused some observers to suggest that current methods are inadequate, irrelevant or misguided. For instance, Miller (2005) asks, "Are police doing too good a job of making arrests and enforcing the law? Do police miss important contextual clues by being incident-driven in their investigations, rather than being contextually based?" (p. 2). By and large, police training models that embrace the components described in Table __ below help to ensure the requisite level of professionalism.
Table ____.
Components of effective police training models.
Component
Description
Corporateness
Corporateness involves instilling an understanding of professional duty and building a minimum level of expertise in an individual before he is admitted to the profession. It thereafter demands collectively maintaining established standards of performance. Implementation of the concepts underlying corporateness takes many forms.
The Police Responsibility to Community-Oriented Policing in a Diverse Society
While corporateness addresses organizational systems and procedures that must support officer training, responsibility speaks more to the policing philosophy that a department chooses to advance. The systems of corporateness act to establish and maintain the philosophy of responsibility. Both systems and philosophy rely on the unique expertise that police officers provide to their clients.
Police Expertise
Training develops and constantly hones the unique skills of a profession. Every leader and officer must unceasingly work to better himself and his colleagues as public servants. Department training in turn should not only help recruits become officers, but also constantly educate police at every echelon beyond their graduation from the academy. Five subject areas, use of force, search and seizure, arrest procedures, community policing, and diversity awareness, constitute a core set of skills that an ethical and effective police officer will regularly employ in combination. Expertise in these five areas demands more than physical adeptness. The professional officer is proficient in both technical skills (e.g., weapons proficiency, physical arrest procedures, and other topics frequently labeled as "tactical") and communication skills.
Source: Glenn et al., pp. 6-7.
Maintaining professional expertise is a continual process. Many professions require members to complete continuing education programs to maintain their standing. Other organizations hold periodic mandatory training sessions that focus on pertinent topics or require members to develop a personal reading program based on recommended readings focusing on the profession. Such programs seek to disseminate knowledge considered necessary for maintaining skills. A profession will stagnate, lapse in its expertise, or otherwise fail in its service to society if it does not constantly update the knowledge of its members (Glenn et al.). Police organizations generally leave the discovery and teaching of new material to their training function and on-the-job experience. Only by exception, such as in the case of a fatal shooting involving an officer or a mishandled riot, do departments conduct investigations that result in dramatic training and policy changes. There is rarely a means in place for promoting the transmission of good practices among precincts or encouraging individual police officers to share innovative concepts. A valuable initiative can take months or years to gain recognition. When there is no mechanism in place to make an innovative officer's initiatives known to a wide audience, they can be lost entirely if he leaves the department (Glenn et al.).
Personality Development Theories.
Personality has many different meanings. Attributes encompassed by the construct range from emotional reactivity to attitudes, expectations, values, and instrumental behaviors. Because consensus does not exist concerning the specific attributes that constitute personality, few measuring instruments cover every dimension assumed to be relevant. Personality is commonly studied at many different levels ranging from the concrete (e.g. behavioral responses) to the abstract (e.g. central orientations or behavioral styles that typify individuals across different situations). Digman (1990) describes this enterprise in terms of a four-tiered hierarchy that includes:
Specific acts or interactions that occur in specific situations;
Typical or modal responses occurring in prototypical situations (e.g. generalized habits or dispositions);
Trait facets or characteristics; and,
Superordinate constructs or traits (e.g. extraversion).
Hierarchical representations of this type generally assume that lower-order characteristics are uniquely related to higher-order constructs. And yet, empirical studies based in natural language show that only about 50% of personality-related descriptors (e.g. adjectives) are related to single traits; almost as many are related to two factors, and a small number to more than two. Circumplexes, created by pitting constructs or traits against one another (e.g. agreeableness vs. extraversion), are thus attractive alternative models (Hofstee et al. 1992). Using several hundred descriptive adjectives, these authors were able to propose a taxonomy that they thought "comparable in function to the periodic table of chemical elements" (p.146).
Factor analyses based on self- and other-descriptions of adults generally yield five orientations or dimensions, known as the Big Five or the Five Factor Model: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional (in)stability, and openness (Digman 1990, Goldberg 1993). The Five Factor Model is robust across many different subjects, item pools, instruments, and methods of factor analysis as well as across different languages and cultures. Some writers (e.g. Goldberg 1993) suggest that the framework can subsume most earlier taxonomies and theoretically derived schemes including Cattell's (1956) Sixteen Personality Factors and Eysenck's (1970) Superfactors (psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism). Such assertions have elicited heated arguments (Eysenck 1993), although wide replicability of the Five Factor Model is sparking many new studies, including several with children and adolescents (Halverson et al. 1994).
Main questions are whether the five factors assessed in adult personality also apply to the description of children's personality and how infant temperament develops into adult personality (Halverson et al. 1994). Although a con sensus does not exist, certain studies with children now confirm earlier results of studies with adults. For example, among both children and adolescents in the Netherlands and the United States, strong resemblance has been reported between the first five factors in the California Child Q-set (Block & Block 1980) and the Five Factor Model (van Lieshout & Haselager 1994, John et al. 1994). Ego-resiliency and ego-control are also linked to the Five Factor Model. Other studies from four countries (the Netherlands, the United States, Belgium, and Surinam) reveal that 70-80% of the characteristics mentioned by parents in describing their children can be classified within the Five Factor Model. Moreover, the proportions of these characteristics assigned to each factor are remarkably similar across countries and languages and across reports obtained from both mothers and fathers for both boys and girls (Kohnstamm et al. 1994).
Temperament is generally defined as a substrate for personality development, consisting of simple, basic styles that emerge early and that are tied closely to distinctive modes of emotional expression. Temperament ordinarily encompasses attributes including activity level, irritability or emotionality, soothability or self-regulation, fearfulness, and sociability (Goldsmith et al. 1987). These attributes, in turn, can be divided into two broad groups (Rothbart 1989): reactivity (i.e. arousability of affect and motor activity) and self-regulation (e.g. attention, approach-withdrawal, inhibition, and self-soothing).
Factor-analytic studies reveal considerable isomorphism between the structure of early temperament and the structure of child and adolescent personality. Studies with infants in the United States, Europe, Australia, and China, using two well-known temperament questionnaires, reveal five to seven factors very similar in meaning to four of the Big Five: Activity level and inhibition are positive and negative poles (respectively) of a factor resembling extraversion; flexibility and control of negative affect reveal aspects of agreeableness; negative emotionality, activity level, irritability, and inhibition define a temperamental factor similar to neuroticism; and task persistence resembles conscientiousness (Martin et al. 1994). Openness does not emerge in these analyses because relevant items are not contained in the infant temperament scales; intellectual ability, however, may be the basis for this factor. Rhythmicity (i.e. regularity of biological functions such as eating, defecating, and sleeping) emerges as a separate factor in these studies but is not usually regarded as relevant to personality development (Goldsmith et al. 1987).
The manner in which temperament serves as a substrate for personality development is not well understood. Temperament is thought to be constitutionally based (i.e. influenced by heredity, maturation, and experience), although it is not more genetically determined or biologically rooted than is personality. In fact, the extent to which temperament is more genetically-based than is personality remains an empirical question (Hartup et al.).
Temperament is currently understood to interact with experience in four main ways:
By determining the child's effective experience, thus accounting for the different effects that similar experiences have on different children;
By affecting the child's sensitivity to rewards and punishments;
By moderating or controlling the effects of other temperamental characteristics (e.g. effortful control may moderate aggression); and,
By influencing the learnability of social behaviors (e.g. social responsibility or conscience).
Personality development is affected pervasively by these interactions between temperament and experience in the following ways:
Certain temperamental factors are elaborated or modulated by these means into personality structure (e.g. low irritability and difficultness into agreeableness);
Temperament interacts with parental characteristics and caretaking behaviors, affecting both the construction of relationships between parent and child and the child's socialization. Much remains to be learned, however, about these elaborations (Hartup et al.).
The dimensions of temperament and the dimensions of personality are sometimes difficult to distinguish from one another. Early temperament is structured in some ways that are similar to the manner in which child and adolescent personality is structured. Continuities exist from childhood into adolescence and adulthood in both temperament and personality organization although the elaborations of temperament into personality are not well understood (Hartup et al.).
Psychodynamic theories emphasize the unconscious; a number of important aspects of personality are beyond human cognizance and can only be brought to consciousness with great difficulty, if at all. A summary and comparison of such psychodynamic theories is provided in Table __ below.
Table ____.
Summary of psychodynamic personality development theories.
Theorist
Key Findings
Sigmund Freud
Devised the first theory of personality (and the first psychotherapy), psychoanalysis. Most of personality is unconscious: we hide many unpleasant truths about ourselves from ourselves by using defense mechanisms, and we are driven by wishes, beliefs, fears, conflicts, and memories of which we are totally unaware. Human nature is entirely malignant, our only instincts are sexual and aggressive, and these inborn impulses include powerful desires for the parent of the opposite sex and intense jealousy toward the parent of the same sex (the Oedipus complex). Personality is often a house divided against itself, torn by conflicting wishes and goals, and this is best explained by using the concepts of id, ego, and superego. Personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages and is firmly established by about age 5 to 6 years. Dreams are a "royal road" to understanding the unconscious. Psychopathology occurs when we can't find ways to channel (sublimate) our malignant instincts into behavior that society will accept.
Carl Jung
At first a supporter of psychoanalysis, then broke with Freud to establish his own theory. Believed that the unconscious is extremely important but disagreed with Freud in many respects: Human nature is both good and bad. There are important instincts in addition to sexuality and aggressiveness (including individuation, the forerunner of the humanistic concept of self-actualization). There is a collective unconscious that contains archetypes, or inherited predispositions to perceive the world in certain ways. Introversion-extraversion is a major aspect of personality. Psychopathology occurs when personality becomes too one-sided, as when we fail to develop important aspects of personality or overemphasize aspects that are contrary to our true (inborn) nature.
Alfred Adler
Adler's inclusion among the psychodynamic theorists is controversial because he did not believe that the unconscious is important. Personality is shaped by the child's relationship with his/her parents and by our consciously chosen life goals, rather than by instincts. The most important motive is striving for self-perfection (superiority). Cooperation with others is essential for our survival, and we have an inborn tendency to do so. Psychopathology occurs when pathogenic parenting causes the child to develop an inferiority complex and refuse to cooperate with others.
Karen Horney
Combined Freud's belief that the unconscious is extremely important with Adler's belief that personality is shaped by the child's relationship with his/her parents. Psychopathology involves a personality that is torn by inner conflicts (but concepts such as the id, ego, and superego are not necessary to explain this); self-hate, which is often concealed by an idealized self-image; and painful anxiety that causes the healthy quest for personal growth to be replaced by an all-out drive for safety and a compulsive desire to be protected, to dominate others, or to be alone.
Erich Fromm
Because humans lack inborn instincts that program behavior, people are more isolated and anxious than any other species, and may find freedom and independence desirable but threatening. Psychopathology is caused by pathogenic parenting and by our poorly designed society, of which Fromm was severely critical, and it occurs when we use our freedom to choose unwisely (as by being selfish instead of loving others). Devised important methods of dream interpretation.
Harry Stack Sullivan
Defined personality in terms of our relationships with other people. Stages beyond early childhood, including adolescence, are important for personality development. Psychopathology is caused by pathogenic parenting that leads to intense anxiety and damaged interpersonal relationships. Made significant contributions to our understanding of the causes and treatment of schizophrenia.
Erik Erikson
Became the leader of the psychoanalytic movement after Freud because he was able to revise psychoanalytic theory in ways that did not offend the establishment. Corrected some of Freud's major errors: Human nature is both good and bad, and the rational ego is stronger than Freud believed. Personality is shaped much more by the child's relationship with his/her parents than by instincts and sexuality, and it develops through a series of psychosocial stages that go from infancy to old age. These stages include adolescence and the identity crisis, and there are criteria for determining whether development is successful at each stage. Devised techniques of play therapy for use with children.
Source: Ewen, 2003, pp. 2-3.
Personality refers to important and relatively stable aspects of behavior. Consider a young woman whose personality includes the trait of "painfully shy." She will behave shyly in many different situations, and over a significant period of time. There are likely to be exceptions: She may be more outgoing with her family or a close friend, or at her own birthday party; however, she will also have difficulty dealing with other people in many cases which will continue for months or even years and will have a significant effect on her general well-being.
Some theorists maintain that personality can be studied only by observing external, social behavior; the majority of psychologists today, though, define personality as originating within the individual. These theorists emphasize that personality may exist in the absence of other people, and may have aspects that are not visible (Ewen).
In this regard, personality development analyses are concerned with the entire range of human behavior. To most theorists, personality includes virtually everything about a person -- "mental, emotional, social, and physical. Some aspects of personality are unobservable, such as thoughts, memories, and dreams, whereas others are observable, such as overt actions. Personality also includes aspects that are concealed from an individual, or unconscious, as well as those that are conscious and well within individual awareness (Ewen).
Ideally, there are four criteria that a theory of personality should satisfy: description, explanation, prediction, and control. Human behavior and its analysis, of course, are extremely complicated, and a useful theory helps bring order out of chaos. It provides convenient descriptions, establishes a framework for organizing substantial amounts of data, and focuses attention on matters that are of greater importance. In addition, a good personality theory explains the phenomena under study. It offers answers to such significant questions as the causes of individual differences in personality, why some people are more pathological than others, and so forth. A theory should also generate predictions, so that it may be evaluated and improved (or discarded). To many psychologists, the gold standard of any theory is its ability to predict future events. Finally, a valuable theory usually leads to important practical applications. It facilitates control and change of the environment -- "for example, by bringing about better techniques of parenting, education, or psychotherapy.
These criteria may seem unambiguous; however, there is frequently considerable disagreement about how best to apply them. For example, some psychologists emphasize that a scientific theory should generate formal, objective predictions that can be tested under the controlled conditions of the research laboratory. From this perspective, a theory with many constructs that are difficult to evaluate empirically (such as the Freudian id, ego, and superego), or one that does not stimulate a considerable amount of research, would be regarded as inferior (Ewen). Other psychologists view the research laboratory as artificial and prefer to derive their theories of personality from informal clinical observations, an approach they regard as scientific. Some theories posit specific stages of growth that delineate the development of personality. The characteristics of these stages (e.g., sexual in Freudian theory), and of the corresponding character types (e.g., oral, anal, phallic, and genital), also highlight important theoretical similarities and differences (Ewen). A summary of representative personality development studies is provided in Table __ below.
Table ____.
Summary of personality development studies.
Author/Date/Title/Publication
Key Findings
Comments
Magai, C. & Haviland-Jones, J. (2002). The hidden genius of emotion: Lifespan transformations of personality. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9, 41.
Growth and development may be seen as an emergent product of a complex, chaotic system. The order that emerges in an initially chaotic condition is holistic in nature and derives from mutual effects. Within a system or between systems there may be an interdependence of variables with push-and-pull vectors that co-affect components, driving them to settle into a coherent pattern over time. In terms of human personality development, there will be the push and pull of co-affecting motor, cognitive, physiological, and emotional subsystems within the individual. There is also the co-affecting push and pull of interpersonal systems. Over time, these mutual effects settle down into recognizable patterns of activity that are identified with intrapersonal coherence or personality.
Most current theories of human development treat the emotional events of infancy as pivotal in personality development, if not "critical periods," with lifelong ramifications.
Shiner, R.L. (2005). An emerging developmental science of personality: Current progress and future prospects. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51(3), 379.
Most relevant to the topic of personality development was the finding that higher emotional stability (or lower neuroticism) predicted greater reductions in externalizing behavior over time. This result points to the fact that children's personality characteristics may be an important source of stability and change in psychopathology. There may be a maintenance association between personality and psychopathology, such that personality may influence the manifestation, course, and prognosis of disordered behavior once it has started, even if the traits did not play a role in the onset of the disordered behavior. It will be important for future work to determine whether this finding replicates in other samples and in other developmental periods and to explore the processes through which neuroticism may exert such a negative effect on children's externalizing behavior over time..
This researcher determined that childhood traits do predict adult personality substantially and that the links between the two are conceptually coherent and meaningful.
Pedlow, R., Sanson, a., Prior, M., Oberklaid, F. (1993). Stability of maternally reported temperament from infancy to 8 years. Developmental Psychology, 29, 998-1007.
Using age-appropriate temperament questionnaires, these researchers demonstrated the measurement equivalence between infancy and age eight in approach (inhibition), irritability, cooperation-manageability, inflexibility, rhythmicity, and task persistence. (Irritability and cooperation-manageability during the first two years combined subsequently to create an inflexibility construct during middle childhood.) Interindividual stabilities were substantially greater (modal values ranging between.57 and.78) than those reported in earlier studies.
These researchers demonstrated that continuity of a construct over time is needed in the assessment of variable-centered stabilities.
Asendorpf, J.B. (1992). A Brunswikean approach to trait continuity: application to shyness. Journal of Personality, 60, 53-77.
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