African conflict resolution: sociology, psychology, and peacebuilding approaches

Sociology and Psychology of Peace Building

Introduction Within the recent past, the continent of Africa has witnessed its fair portion of violent and intractable conflicts, both inter and intrastate. For instance, the Arab Spring in Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya since 2010 to the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, and Niger Delta conflict, the South African water shortage conflict, the 2007/2008 Kenyan post-election violence, thus the need to conflict analysis, management and resolution.
To enhance peacebuilding, the African Union and United Nations, together with other regional-based organizations, have been leading in active strategic dialogue, engagement, and collaboration efforts critical to resolving, transforming, and managing a different range of conflicts found throughout Africa. Hybrid, internal, and external models can sustain and open pathways to peace (Brewer et al., 2018). Definition of Terms Sociology is defined as the study of changes in social life and social influences and consequences of human conduct. Sociologists study the structure of organizations, societies, people, groups, and how they interact. Because human behavior is social, sociology ranges from core family to organized crime, hostile mob, a religious cult, gender and social class, war, and conflicts. On the other hand, peace psychology focuses on psychology that seeks to establish practices and theories that inhibit conflict and violence and mitigate their societal effects. Moreover, it also evaluates viable methods of enhancing peace.
Subsequently, peacebuilding involves conflict management and resolution processes that include enhancement of satisfactory and peaceful conflict cessation and processes of handling discord. The actions and ideas on how disputes are dealt with within various social, economic, political, historical, cultural, and historical contexts originate from various people, institutions, and positions (Brewer et al., 2018).
Some known strategies to conflict resolution and management include alternative dispute resolution (facilitation, negotiation, case analysis, mediation, arbitration, conciliation, and early neutral evaluation), diplomacy, and peacebuilding (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Two emerging themes are identified by analyzing conflict management in Africa: issues of conflict affecting the continent and conflict management and resolution mechanisms (Aiken, 2008). Models of Peace Building with Examples Conflict analysis, management, and resolution must adopt an interdisciplinary approach, address the root causes, and use multicultural and social sensitivities to regional and global sources of conflict. According to their postcolonial contexts, psychologists and socialites have to investigate and clearly understand the causes, origins, consequences, and resolution of conflicts in Africa. African concerns and triggers to conflict include religious, environmental, ethnic, and political conflict factors together with demographic pressures (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Psychologists, African Union, and UN roles in post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation should be evaluated and determined to guarantee effectiveness in African conflicts.
The continent of Africa is known to be deep in instability, and armed conflict, with most devastating and violent conflicts being intrastate, resulting in peacekeeping efforts by the regional and international players (Oguonu & Ezeibe, 2014). Such conflicts have resulted in poverty, disease, despair, deprivation, displacement of persons, and challenges of refugees.
Furthermore, such armed conflicts have seriously hampered the attainment of security, development, and democratic consolidation. Due to a lack of political stability, there has been little space for economic growth and development, prompting the marginalization of the African continent within the international community (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009).
Accordingly, there is a vital need for Africa and the AU to make more incredible strides in need to addressing and resolving conflicts to strengthen the foundation for economic development and lasting peace. Take, for example, in an international conference at Potchefstroom in 2006 duped as “Voices of Africa, Voices for peace,” a participant described the African continent dilemma as a continent plagued by several social, economic, and political challenges that are drastically escalated by interstate conflicts and civil wars on the continent of Africa (Aiken, 2008). These conflicts are to blame for the economic chaos present in some countries in Africa (Brewer et al., 2018). Therefore, it is essential that the conflicts are managed and ceased.
Consequently, according to the international conference at Potchefstroom in 2006 duped as “Voices of Africa, Voices for peace,” particular resolutions were adopted to manage conflicts within Africa. Some of the resolutions included: any form of violence is condemned despite social, religious, or other differences among the people (Oguonu & Ezeibe, 2014). That violence cannot be perceived as a result of political or economic causes only. Also, that sociology and psychology can be used to approach challenges emanating from conflicts to enhance peace.
Conflict as a phenomenon is not only in Africa alone; it affects people across the globe. Nonetheless, conflicts can as well escalate into extensive violence or armed conflicts. Africa, in particular, has experienced cases where members of a given group may adopt violent action to pursue their interests with another group. As a result, undertaking peace initiatives in Africa has been challenging (Brewer et al., 2018).
The United Nations’ efforts to ensure global peace, human rights, and prosperity have been significantly undermined by the conflict in Africa. Accordingly, Africa has become the defining factor in the UN (the ultimate role in maintaining the world’s security and peace) and the post-cold war order. Therefore, the importance and significance of building peace within Africa are, in fact, of great interest and significance (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009).
From the independence era and later integration within the international community with over 53 states, Africa has predominantly been characterized by civil and international wars and strive of varying nature (Aiken, 2008). In Africa, conflict is considered multifaceted and includes wars of national liberation and colonialism, intra- and interstate wars, and post-cold wars. Peacebuilding Strategies and Theories Because conflicts are never the same, there are no specific strategies for resolving conflict and enhancing peacebuilding. However, some key strategies have been used to resolve conflict within some corners of the continent. One of such strategies includes dialogue. In Mali, for instance, the dialogue was used to bring actors like Malian Defence and security forces and the government of Mali. The outcome of the dialogue established an atmosphere that enabled the rebuilding of trust and relationships between the wider Malian population and the Defense and Security Forces. Through dialogue, Namibia and Botswana, Cameroon and Nigeria, both taking military dimension, were resolved with the African Union (AU) and the UN acting as mediators.
Another strategy used to enhance peacebuilding is empowering the local actors in the processes of social change. However, such processes require proper political and social context knowledge to identify appropriate opportunities and moments to promote change. When local communities are empowered to contribute to peacebuilding, there is an increased probability of top-down policies to achieve the changing needs of the public, increasing their sustainability and legitimacy. For instance, in 2012, a truce between the main gangs of El Salvador contributed to a decline in homicide rates by around 60%, indicating the availability of options for violence reduction. Nevertheless, when the truce broke down in 2015, the highest level of homicides in decades was witnessed.
In addition, squeezing the vertical gap between the grassroots and decision-makers is another strategy to enhance peace. Everyone must be involved in conflict resolution processes to establish trust by collective identification of solutions and joint implementation to resolve the issues to realize peaceful social transformation. For instance, in Somalia, there has been a deliberate effort by the AMISON to enhance peacebuilding and state-building processes to find a solution of interest to communities within the region.
Furthermore, some countries have used the findings on the ground to establish more proper policy reform. For instance, after the Ivorian socio-political war that ceased in 2011, youths joined groups known as microbes to engage in highly violent acts. The attempts to use force by the government to tackle the challenge failed. However, through inter peace and partners, Ivory developed policies that helped reduce and overcome the violence. Programs were developed that engaged the youths and their families, hence, enhancing peace.
Also, to establish peace, a high measure of multiple interventions’ external parties; For instance, it is on record that African is leading in terms of external interventions to calm and resolve conflicts (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). According to Christopher Clapham, an authoritative African specialist, Africa has been the most critical regional setting for UN peacekeeping operations.
Currently, there are day talks everywhere in the continent of African as far as its rebirth and establishment of lasting peace are concerned (Aiken, 2008). With the formation of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), which focused on the “the common vision and a firm and shared conviction” by the leaders of the African continent, basing the program on the focus by Africans to liberate Africa from the exclusion in the global world and the challenge of underdevelopment (Brewer et al. 2018).
Africa established a joint duty to strengthen conflict management, resolution, and prevention to ensure peace is restored and maintained to ensure development is achieved. In the near past, the South African philosophy and policy have been based on critical assumptions made in NEPAD that “peace and good governance promotes and allows fundamental requisite of investment, foreign and domestic which Africa needs as a strategy.
Henceforth, South Africa has transitioned to be more Africa-centered with a commitment to establishing cooperative relations (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Furthermore, through their government, south Africa made it known that their interest is founded on promoting regional stability and peace to improve trade and development to prevent any spillover conflict within the neighborhood.
Besides, after south Africa committed itself to regional security and peace, it planned for any occurrence concerning peace missions (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). As a result, the South African state department of foreign affairs compiled a white paper on its international peace missions (Neethling, 2002). The white paper was an essential guideline and framework for South Africa’s peace missions (Brewer et al., 2018).
To date, South Africa considers itself a valuable member of the African continent. The government believes that insecurity and instability, especially in southern Africa, are dangerous to the country. As a result, therefore, South Africa has to contribute to global peacebuilding as a priority of foreign policy (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). The country is also of the view that SANDF has to engage in peacebuilding issues in nature continuously.
On the other hand, even though South Africa has concisely stated its policy guidelines on engagement in peace missions, it also engages with SANDF in UN peace missions as a strategic plan (Brewer et al., 2018). For example, in 2001, South Africa announced its compliance with an international obligation towards the UN. The SANDF was to release elements of specialized units to the mission of the United Nations in DRC.
Such announcement was significant as it created the path for the SANDF’s initial tangible contribution- particularly human resources nature- to international peace missions (Aiken, 2008). In 2002, the number of members of SANDF deployed in the Democratic Republic of Congo increased to about 150.
After the involvement of South Africa’s military in DRC, there was a deployment of a few members of the SANDF to AU mission in Comoros to reinforce support for the peace process within the country (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Later on, South African troops were further deployed to Burundi to protect a couple of Burundian political leaders that had come back from exile to contribute to the country’s power-sharing transitional government (Brewer et al., 2018).
In 2003, the South African troops deployed in peacebuilding missions increased to about 900 SANDF servicewomen and men. However, the troops even increased further after the SANDF members were later added to the peacebuilding process in DRC. While in august 2003, the government of South Africa further stated that SANDF members would take the responsibility of supporting the Liberian peacebuilding process.
Accordingly, resolution 1556 was endorsed by the UN security council in July 2004 to facilitate the deployment of the AU protection force in Darfur, which was then war-ravaged. Sudan monitored a ceasefire agreement by April 2008 between two rebels and the Khartoum government (Aiken, 2008).
Thus, clearing the path for the AU to mandate the African mission in Sudan seems to have become the most critical challenge of peacebuilding endeavors for the AU in recent times. AU also requested SANDF to contribute troops to resolve conflict in the Darfur region; hence, eight battalions were provided by the AMIS plan (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Unfortunately, AMIS failed in peace and security realization within the war-torn Darfur province, while media coverage on the AU continuously became vital.
Subsequently, in 2006, an officer of SANDF announced the decision of the government of South Africa to add 647 members of the AMIS staff to supplement the 700 south African AMIS staff (Aiken, 2008). Hence, an indicative of the solid political and social commitment of the government of South Africa to security and peace in the continent of Africa.
Another strategy was military deployment to the Ivory Coast to resolve conflict and enhance peacebuilding due to an agreement between the Ivory Coast and the South African government (Neethling, 2002). Additionally, the idealistic approach to peacebuilding, including an apology, historical justice, rebalancing power relationships, and reconciliation, are usually founded on biased political judgments (Mair, 2009).
In addition, AU has multiple institutions that attend to human abuse and conflicts to manage and resolve conflict to enhance peace in Africa (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Apart from the African pan parliament, the executive council, AU General Assembly, the panel of the wise, the chairperson of African commission, the peace fund, the African standby force, the peace, and security council, amongst others, are mandated to resolve and prevent conflict, protect human rights and to ensure peacebuilding process (Aiken, 2008).
Other bodies mandated to ensure human rights are protected through the management and resolution of conflicts in Africa include the African commission on people and human rights, the African peer review mechanism, and the court of justice and human rights in Africa (Mair, 2009).
Furthermore, the African Union has also developed post-conflict resolution and reconstruction mechanisms designed by NEPAD. It aims to enhance activities’ effectiveness, coordination, and timeliness after conflict and establish a base for sustainable peace and social justice per Africa’s vision of growth and renewal (Brewer et al., 2018). The policy outlines the principles and indicates multiple interventions and purposes for peacebuilding to realize the goals in the framework.
Another critical policy in realizing peace and conflict resolution in Africa is the typical African defense and security policy (Aiken, 2008). At the same time, an essential AU framework mandated with intervention responsibilities is the peace and security council. In 2004, the African Union protocol establishing the peace and security council entered into force.
It formed a collective and security prior warning plans to expedite efficient and timely response to crisis and conflict situations within Africa (Brewer et al. 2018). The peace and security council heralds an effective system for the early identification of conflict and crisis and has the power to take early actions to thwart such problems. Also, the peace and security council’s mandate is vast and has to be executed in consultation with the chairperson of the African Union (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Some of the mandates include ensuring the implementation of regional, continental, and international instruments and conventions.
To deal with conflict and restore peace in Africa, AU, through the peace and security council, never announced again and no more to conflicts. It stated that Africa could never afford to watch tragedies escalating in the continent. They further stated that Africa could no longer remain indifferent to the tragedy of its people. Subsequently, the African union made its first intervention to establish peace in May 2003, when Ethiopia, Mozambique, and South Africa deployed troops to Burundi minus authorization from the United Nations (Neethling, 2002). Nevertheless, in 2004, the United Nations security council applauded the African Union contribution minus ratifying the remedy.
Another strategy is through suspension from member organizations. For example, AU acted to resolve conflict and establish peacebuilding when it suspended Mauritania’s membership in 2005 after President Maaouiya was deposed in a coup (Brewer et al., 2018). AU also suspended and threatened sanctions against Togo from any involvement or participation in the affairs of the African Union after the country’s coup in 2005. However, the AU lifted the suspensions after Togo conducted democratic elections (Aiken, 2008). Regrettably, the failure by AU to resolve conflict and bring peace in Sudan has kind of undermined the African Union’s credibility as an essential conflict resolution actor.
The African Union has also crafted a regime to tackle its multiple challenges of human rights violations during the conflict as a new strategy to peacebuilding. However, it may take years before it accomplishes the goal of ensuring security to most Africans trapped in daily human rights abuse and conflicts. On the other hand, the intervention of the international communities such as the United Nations Special Adviser on the prevention of genocide in Kenya and successfully coming up with a solution in February 2008 confirms the view that principles and peace can be realized in Africa. So far, African countries like South Africa and Nigeria have played an essential role in establishing peace and minimizing conflicts in multiple countries. They vied for a non-permanent UN security council seat. However, the motives and roles of such countries have always been doubted (Oguonu & Ezeibe, 2014). For instance, the role of South Africa regarding Zimbabwe has been controversial, and its quiet diplomacy policy has not been successful (Dayton & Kriesberg, 2009). Other countries and individuals viewed south Africa as benefiting politically and economically from the challenges in Zimbabwe, hence, considered not an honest broker.
On the other hand, the theory of change thinking is a flexible strategy that promotes and enhances peacebuilding through critical thinking design. A wide range of actors is increasingly adopting the theory of change thinking. The theory of change has been described as learning and analysis that develops insight to enhance critical thinking. Some of the assumptions of the theory of change include;  Establishing a new mechanism for sorting a range of conflicts in the community contributes to maintaining peace and eliminating cases that can escalate serious conflicts. Establishing inclusive structures for solving joint problems, improving respect, communication, and productive interactions among the communal subgroups, and enhancing access to disadvantaged groups to decision-making. Establishing a new leadership team with democratic concepts to foster more responsive and effective leadership.