Peer Coaching Lead to Professional

¶ … Peer Coaching Lead to Professional Development in Schools?

Peer coaching refers to a professional development strategy where teachers use their own experiences and strategies to help others become better teachers. They observe one another and provide support and advice so that everyone will have a chance to grow in their skill level. Peer coaching works both ways. The one being coached learns from the observers and the observers learn from the one that is teaching. The following will explore current literature on peer coaching and will serve as a guide for the development of improved peer coaching programs in the future.

The History of Peer Coaching

Professional development is necessary for the success of any school system.

Many teachers recognize that the skills they developed in the past are no longer sufficient to meet their students' diverse needs." (Swafford, 1998, p. 54).

This realization is the key ideal that led to training seminars aimed at increasing skills and improving the level of knowledge that the teacher brings to the classroom.

The goal of professional development is to improve learning outcomes for all student populations, including special needs and other special groups. Although it would appear that peer coaching is focused on the teacher, the real recipient of professional development is the student. As the competency of the teacher increases, so does the outcome for the student.

Peer coaching evolved as a result of studies that indicated that new teaching strategies gained through seminars did not make it into the classroom (Showers & Joyce, 1996). Teachers were not using what they learned in staff development programs. Well-researched teaching methods and models did not make their way into the classroom. Students did not receive the benefit of improved research on teaching methods. A need developed for a way to not only pass on the information, but to make certain that teachers knew how to implement it. Peer coaching stemmed from that need (Showers & Joyce, 1996).

Showers and Joyce were pioneers in the field of peer coaching. They found that regular practice was needed in order for the teacher to be able to use what they learned in seminars. It was once thought that changes in school organization and training design were at fault, but this was found an erroneous assumption and it became apparent that a different approach was needed (Showers & Joyce, 1996). Showers and Joyce designed a program where teachers experienced modeling followed by practice under simulated conditions. This was followed by classroom practice and combined feedback (Joyce & Showers, 1980). These programs were an improvement over those that only offered training and then sent the teacher back into the classroom to practice with no ideas on how to implement what they learned. However, they were still lacking in the ability to transform classroom learning into teaching situations (Showers & Joyce, 1996).

Peer coaching, as we know it today, developed in the late 1980s and soon became the standard for professional development. Attention to social development is the key to forming a successful peer coaching arrangement. Peer coaching is known by many names such as technical coaching, collegial coaching, challenge coaching, team coaching, cognitive coaching, and peer coaching (Showers & Joyce, 1996). All of these terms refer to different approaches to the same practices. This research will use the term "peer coaching" for purposes of uniformity and clarity.

The following review of literature will focus on the most current theories regarding peer coaching. It will explore the various peer coaching models that have developed since inception of the idea. It will explore the positive and negative aspects of each model. This research will present challenges to peer coaching and will suggest further research into this area that needs to be conducted in order to developing more effective peer coaching strategies in the future.

Current Practice

Implementation of a peer coaching program requires participation of every member of the staff. They must all agree to abide by whatever decisions are handed down by the other staff members. This is one of the most important factors in the peer coaching program. Showers & Joyce (1996) found that all is well until it comes time to provide criticism of the teacher. Peer coaches have a difficult time preventing the tendency to slip into supervisory comments. Comments tended to be more judgmental and evaluative rather than offering sound advice and mentoring. This transforms the process from peer coaching to peer review, which is an entirely different animal.

As in the past, principals play a key role in staff development by providing an environment that supports and promotes staff growth and development (DuFour & Berkey, 1995). Schools that promote growth and development are viewed as an organic being that is capable of learning and transformation. Not only do the individuals within it grow, the organization grows as well. This ideal represents a paradigm shift from traditional views regarding relationships between administrators and teaching staff.

Under the old paradigm, the school was viewed as hierarchical. The administrators were on the top and teachers were on the bottom. New practices were handed down from the top and teachers were expected to immediately implement them in their classroom. However, now ideology is beginning to shift and the school is viewed as a holistic system where every element is as important as any other element. This model allows teachers to have greater input into the processes that take place. They also have a greater responsibility in terms of student outcome as well.

In a recent study involving teachers who attended a professional development workshop, teachers were asked to rate the performance of other teachers. This study found that teachers perceived those that were similar to themselves as more effective than those that had a dissimilar teaching style (Courneya, Pratt, & Collins, 2008).

One teacher stated, tend to evaluate people who teach like me higher than people who may teach with another dominant perspective yand I think that might be different now, even being aware [of other perspectives] will make it differentybecause I don't tend to be the most tolerant person about things that are different?." (Courneya, 2008, p. 76).

This statement reflects basic human nature. We tend to be attracted to things that are like us. This motivation stems from the need to validate ourselves by comparing ourselves to others. When we find someone like us, it validates our own methods and ideals. When we find someone different, we must stop and question ourselves and our way of doing things.

After attending the workshop, another teacher responded,

In most of the time y you have your own biases which you try to impose upon in judging people. Now I can stand away from that?." (Courneya, 2008, p. 76).

This response indicates that the training seminar created the potential for growth in some workhop attendees. Growth stems from the ability to accept the ideas of others and to realize that one's own ideas are not the only valid ones. Removing personal biases is imperative if a peer coaching program is to be successful.

Current theories on peer coaching and staff development typically describe activities that should happen, as opposed to what actually happens (Zwart, Wubbels, Bolhuis, et al., 2008). At a minimum, these authors suggest that teachers should regularly discuss their efforts to support student learning, experiment with instructional methods, and observe each other in the classroom. Peer coaching should lead to an ongoing process of change that reflects a change in cognition or behavior (Zwart, Wubbels, Bolhuis, et al., 2008). Observation plays a key role in the ability to affect changes in one's teaching ability for the better. Peer coaching depends on the ability to observe and integrate the information learned into one's own teaching strategy.

In order to become a better teacher, one must be able to understand their place within the organization. Teachers can no longer hide behind their classroom walls and expect to become better with age. Current organizational theory suggests that there are strong parallels between natural and social sytems (Costa, Kahaneo, Lipton, et al., 2001). Using this approach implies that organizations have much to learn from the fields of evolutionary biology and quantum physics (Costa, Kahaneo, Lipton, et al., 2001). Holonomy refers to the identity of the individual as both autonomous and as a member of the larger whole at the same time (Costa, Kahaneo, Lipton, et al., 2001). This description clearly defines how the individual teacher fits into the goals of the school system as a whole.

In describing the individual, we find the following statement,

They are in a constant state of experiencing and experimenting, learning from each new situation. Autonomous human beings are self-referencing, drawing on their own unique systems, experiences, strengths and origins towards continuous growth. This growth includes the capacity to transcend original patterns." (Costa, Kahaneo, Lipton, et al., 2001, p. 1).

As this individual interacts with other autonomous individuals system dynamics begin to emerge.

In the case of educators, we are autonomous selves interacting at multiple levels of organization: The teacher, the class, the school, the district and the community. Each level influences and is influenced by those around it." (Costa, Kahaneo, Lipton, et al., 2001, p. 2).

Once the teacher understands how their performance and their teaching ability relate to the outcomes of the school as a whole, they will be able to understand the need for peer observation and coaching. They desire better outcomes for the school, but they are not accustomed to the openness of the peer coaching model, as we will see.

Barriers to Success

Through the course of this literature review, several key barriers to the success of peer coaching programs were discovered, Many of the problems related to logistical problems that could be easily solved through time management or creative scheduling. However, some of barriers to success related to the attitudes of the teachers themselves. This barriers will prove much more difficult to resolve.

One of the key barriers to professional development programs is finding time to conduct the program. Several Solutions are being proposed such as altered school calendars, using permanent substitutes, and scheduling common planning time (Prixotto & Fager, 1998). Several common factors are responsible for the failure of professional development programs. They are: using programs that offer quick-fix solutions to complex problems, using fad programs, overload and competing demands, lack of attention to site-specific conditions, teacher turnover, failure to plan for and learn new strategies, and attempts to manage by central office staff instead of developing leadership skills throughout the staff (Prixotto & Fager, 1998).

Another barrier to success relates to the willingness of the teacher to undergo the scrutiny of another.

A although classroom observation is seen as an indispensable component in both staff development and appraisal, it is not well received by teachers in general," (Lam, 2001, p. 162).

This is a natural reaction, but it will be necessary for the teacher to overcome, if a peer coaching program is to be successful. In order for successful coaching to occur, teachers must feel comfortable reflecting negative as well as positive outcomes in the program (King, 2001). To develop this level of intimacy requires a feeling of collaboration and a sense of one's individuality within the larger organizational structure. It also requires a feeling of confidence in one's ability to disclose such information without risk.

Collective inquiry by teachers is a necessary element of organizational growth. Teachers must be willing to seek out new information and the desire to find ways to improve their own teaching strategies. However, in order to do so, teachers must be willing to make themselves vulnerable to criticism of their job performance. This is difficult to do, but it is necessary in order to improve student outcomes. Convincing teachers of the necessity of the observation and critique process poses a major barrier to the establishment of a peer coaching program.

Three major difficulties undermine classroom observation were: pressure felt by teachers, lack of time, and lack of understanding and experience in classroom observation. (Lam, 2001). All of these barriers can be overcome by presenting research-based evidence that supports the necessity of the peer coaching program. Lack of time can be resolved through administrative actions.

In addition to these barriers, teachers often experience a gap between scientifically based and theoretical educational approaches. In order to be successful, school must be able to bridge this gap and bring students research-based methods that employ the latest in theoretical approach (Little & Houston, 2003).

Understanding about teacher use and acquisition of knowledge and skills is fundamental to our understanding about how and in what circumstances teachers use research and evidence to develop their practice." (Joyce & Showers, 2002, p. 1).

The goal of peer coaching is to increase the usage of knowledge gained through shared ideas. Acquisition of the knowledge is not enough. Teachers must be willing to implement the knowledge into their daily classroom teaching. Leadership can set the tone for the willingness and acceptance of peer coaching to be utilized. Without leadership support, peer coaching will not be likely to be effective. Leadership must be supportive of the concept in order for it to be effective.

Cohesiveness and strong school leadership are also essential to training effectiveness," (Joyce & Showers, 2002, p. 3).

Standards-based reform has caused a serious disconnect between institutional structure, the curriculum, and teaching methods (Elmore, 1999/2000). The key weakness of standards-based education is that it cannot account for the fact that not all students achieve the same level of mastery, and why some do not get that material at all (Elmore, 1999/2000). It can quantify the results of the educational system and can help to define the problems, but it cannot offer any solutions to the problems that it uncovers.

Schools can actively support "the norms of experimentation, collaborative planning and development, and implementation of content aimed at collective goals." (Joyce & Showers, 2002, p. 4).

In order to resolve the key barriers to implementation of peer coaching, the school must develop an attitude that permeates through every level of the organization. This attitude of support must be consistent from the principal to the teachers. If one element of support is missing, it will infiltrate the rest of the layers and the program will be unlikely to gain the support that it needs.

Types of Peer Coaching

Teaching used to be an isolated profession (Goldstein, 2007), where the walls defined teacher territory. One teacher remarks, taught for seven years next to this nice person, just an awful teacher, and I could hear her through the wall, hear the kids and stuff and I would go over and have to quiet them down, just to kind of bring some sanity to it. But it was like the elephant in the living room. Nobody would talk about how awful she was." (in Goldstein, 2007, p. 490).

Peer coaching breaks this isolation. Rather than continuing to be a bad teacher, peer coaching resolves many situations, such as the one mentioned above. There are several types of peer coaching used in schools today.

Team-based schooling was first introduced in the Cincinnati Public School system in 1996/1997 (Supovitz, 2002). This model shifted decision making about curriculum and instruction from administration to communities of teaching staff. It was expected that this increased responsibility would result in high quality educational standards, as teachers would have greater accountability for their results (Supovitz, 2002).

This approach differed from the traditional hierarchical, authoritarian structure that existed in the past. These changes represented a shift towards a more democratic approach to education. It also represented a power shift from administration to the teachers themselves. One of the key problems found with the program was that teachers spent too much time on administrative tasks that took away from their teaching time (Supovitz, 2002).

Coaching differs from training in many ways. Coaching is based on the ideal that both player can make a contribution. This is unlike the expert/novice relationship in training where one has more to offer than the other (Browne, 2006). Coaching relies on collaboration and cooperation rather than criticism and authority of one person over another. The coach and learner form a symbiotic relationship that is absent in many other forms of training. Now let us see some of the results that have been obtained through peer coaching, as opposed to older training methods.

Peer coaching had an impact on learners in the United Kingdom.

There has been an improvement in attendance and punctuality which has been attributed to improved and fun learning methods. Classes are less disruptive, learners are talking in class but about the subject they are studying. The learners are more engaged in the learning process and as a result, pass rates have improved." (Brown, 2006, p. 38).

These outcomes support the superiority of coaching over training methods.

One approach to coaching is to hire outside coaches to evaluate and help teachers achieve their goals. Under this strategy, teachers learn through one-on-one coaching, as well as collaborative coaching and learning (Neufield & Roper, 2003). This type of coaching strategy often focuses on the needs of the entire school system, rather than the needs of the individual. This type of coaching are focused on helping individuals participate in such as way as to enhance group goals. The popularity of this coaching style is largely a trend that is sweeping many professions. It may represent a fad, rather than a method that will stay in the teaching profession.

These types of coaches are typically only in the school for a limited number of hours and make their assessments based on an occasional observation. It has been argued that this type of coaching is ineffective, as the coach only has a limited perspective on the individual teacher's style. In addition, these coaches are often thinly spread across a district's multiple sites. They often do not have sufficient time to provide an accurate and complete assessment. The insider teacher will have a better grasp on the daily operations of the school and will be able to understand organizational goals better than an outside consultant.

In regards to this type of coaching strategy, one respondent said, "I'm trying to walk a tightrope between doing stuff and building capacity to do it. With respect to using data to make instructional decisions. I think the important thing is to make the data useful to people." (Neufield & Roper, 2003, p. 27).

There are several different types of peer coaching programs, aside from those that involve the hiring of an outside consultant. Technical Coaching and team coaching focus on incorporation new curriculum and techniques into the daily routines of the teacher (Wong & Nicotera, 2003). Collegial coaching and cognitive coaching focus on improving existing teacher practices by refining techniques and increasing professional dialogue. This technique focuses on helping teachers to reflect on their teaching experiences (Wong & Nicotera, 2003). Challenge coaching concentrates on the identification and treatment of a specific problem as it applies to the school or a specific grade level (Wong & Nicotera, 2003).

When compared to mentoring and executive coaching, peer coaching focuses on the performance of the individual, rather than the needs of the organization (Kutilek, 2001). Peer coaching offer much more to the individual than peer mentoring or executive coaching, but it still allows both parties to grow from the experience (Kutilek, 2001). When one considers the importance of the individual to the outcomes of the organization, it becomes apparent that peer coaching has its place in professional growth.

There were no conclusive studies found that support one coaching style over another. The methods and type of coaching chosen are highly dependent upon the goals and objectives of the program. The problems that each school system faces and the organizational culture also have an impact on when coaching style is appropriate. Every school system is searching for the magic pill that will cure all of their woes, but it simply is not out there. One of the key factors to success is the ability to pick the correct coaching method for the school culture and organizational style.

Conclusion

The transition from training seminars to peer coaching represents a change from a hierarchical system to a more democratic one. Teachers are the driving force behind the peer coaching movement. We found that the key product gained by peer coaching is the ability to apply a standards-based curriculum to the real-world classroom setting. Peer coaching has several positive affects on those who participate.

Peer coaching builds a sense of community among those that participate (Bruce & Ross, 2008). In a study regarding a peer coaching study involving mathematics teachers, it was found that as a result of the coaching experience teachers moved their practice toward standards-based teaching. (Bruce & Ross, 2008). It was also found that the program had positive results on teacher efficacy (Bruce & Ross, 2008). The third outcome of this study was that the peer coaching experience caused participants to reflect more explicitly on their teaching methods (Bruce & Ross, 2008). These affects led to improvements in student outcomes.

The educational system is not the only one to benefit from peer coaching. These same techniques are now being applied to the Department of Justice. Efforts by the Department of Justice and the Department of Education were combined in an attempt to reduce juvenile delinquency using peer coaching techniques. These results underestimated the positive impact of the programs on the target population (Bird & Little, 1983).

In order to understand the progression of reform within the system, one must understand how the acceptance of new ideas progresses within society.

There is an overwhelming amount of evidence that educational change is inherently, endemically, and ineluctably nonlinear. This means that the most systemically sophisticated plan imaginable will unfold in a nonlinear, broken-front, back-and-forth manner. It will be fragmented." (Fullen, 1996, p. 420).

Peer coaching is beginning to take it place in the staff development spectrum. However, as this quote reminds us, it is not likely to take the educational system by storm. Earlier in this literature review, we discussed several barriers to implementation. Some of thee barriers were time management problems. School systems often face manpower shortages that place a greater strain on administrative and teacher time. Some of these problems can be resolved through creative scheduling. Funding also poses a similar problem in many school districts. Schools are currently strapped for time and money. This will ultimately affect their willingness to try relatively new programs and strategies.