Challenges and opportunities for Pentecostal groups in northeast India

Challenges and Opportunities Facing Pentecostal Groups in Northeast India With an enormous population already exceeding 1.28 billion and growing every day, India is the second-most populous country in the world today, and may outpace China’s 1.38 billion people in the foreseeable future. Although nearly 80% of India’s population, or about one billion people, are practicing Hindus, there are several other major religions with significant representation in the country as well, including Muslims, Christians and Sikhs.[footnoteRef:1] Although India has a long tradition of religious tolerance, longstanding hostilities between Hindus and Muslims continue to create tensions in the hotly contested Kashmir region in northeast India and the potential for war between these two nuclear powers is ever present.[footnoteRef:2] These long-standing hostilities include the violence and discord that occurred prior to the partitioning of India and Pakistan into separate countries. Those hostilities were so nasty that some Indians turned against their fellow countrymen. Perhaps the most prominent example of this would be the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by another Indian who was incensed about Gandhi’s acquiescence towards the partitioning of India into its more modern form. As noted above, of course, hostilities in Kashmir are proof that some animus clearly remains between Indians and Muslims. [1: “India population.” 2017. CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html.] [2: Parvez Zaheer, “An Empowering Rule.” Islamic Horizons. 46, no. 1 (January 1, 2017): 54.]

Taken together, it is clear that religion remains a powerful force in India today. However, many minority religious groups face some profound challenges in this country as well as significant opportunities for the future. This is even true when it comes to Christianity and its many sects. Even with the fact that Christianity is dominant and widely accepted in many parts of the world. However, this is much truer in the West, as compared to the East. Areas like China, India and other major population centers in the East tend to be somewhat or very devoid of Christians in general, let alone Pentecostals specifically. Even so, Pentecostalism is a vibrant form of Christianity in many parts of the world. It has the perpetual potential to carry the Gospel to every country in the world. Thus, this paper examines the challenges and opportunities facing Pentecostal groups in northeastern areas of modern India. There will then be a summary and conclusion of the research and the related important findings concerning these pressing issues.
There are eight states in northeastern India. These states are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Those states are all rich in culture, in addition to sharing the same common geographical region. This is shown in much more detail in Figure 1 below. They are also all plagued by intermittent terrorism from a variety of sources as well as inter-ethnic conflicts. However, this is where the commonalities essentially end. For instance, according to one authority, “the northeast consists of 40 million people spread over eight states that cover 263,000 square kilometers and none of them would agree to fight for the liberation of the ‘Northeast’ in general” (emphasis author’s).[footnoteRef:3] [3: Wasbir Hussain. 2008, May 2. “Are all India’s 8 north-eastern states disturbed areas?” A Wide Angle View of India. https://nitawriter.wordpress.com/2008/05/02/is-there-that-much-violence-in-indias-8-north-eastern-states/]

Figure 1. Map of Northeast Indian States
http://www.mdoner.gov.in/sites/default/files/silo4_content/NE/NE_Region.jpg

As can be seen from the map above, northeast India has several natural frontiers with other countries. All of them contribute to the increasingly heightened tensions in the region. Moreover, the frequently hostile terrain combined with “the multiplicity of insurgency activities, militants [and] terrorists [has] created havoc in the border areas.”[footnoteRef:4] This regional unrest has been further exacerbated by at least 30 different separatist groups that have been seeking autonomy or outright independence from the Indian federation as well as the “battles for territorial supremacy amongst the different ethnic groups themselves.”[footnoteRef:5] The latter problem is especially pronounced given that there are approximately 400 additional tribal or subtribal groups and 160 Scheduled Tribes living side-by-side in northeast India. The strategic alliances that have been forged between these groups frequently “transcend inter-state and international borders.”[footnoteRef:6] [4: Rini Matthew. 2016. “The Dynamics of Terrorism in North-East India – A Critique.” Rostrum. https://rostrumlegal.com/the-dynamics-of-terrorism-in-north-east-india-a-critique/] [5: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 north-eastern states disturbed areas?” ] [6: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 north-eastern states disturbed areas?” ]

This level of ethnic diversity is not limited to northeastern India, of course. However, it is more highly pronounced in this region. This is one of the factors that has fueled ongoing unrest. According to Pulla, besides the four traditional groups in the Indian caste system that are based on occupations (i.e., Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra), there are also “two more marginalized caste groups, Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes, who are living outside the mainstream of the society because of their lower social status [which] adversely affects the equality of opportunities to the disadvantage of these groups.”[footnoteRef:7] Caught in the middle of all of this ethnic, religious, political and social unrest, of course, are millions of ordinary Indian citizens who want nothing more from life than to earn a living and make the lives of their children better than their own. Indeed, even under optimal circumstances, earning a living in northeastern India is a challenging enterprise because many of the states are suffering from impoverished conditions and a fundamental lack of employment opportunities.[footnoteRef:8] [7: D. Pulla Rao, “Socio-Economic Status of Scheduled Tribes in Visakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh.” Journal of Social Welfare and Management, 6, no. 4 (October-December 2014): 189. ] [8: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 north-eastern states disturbed areas?” ]

To its credit, the central Indian government has made significant investments in developmental projects throughout northeast India in recent years in response to these problems, but the outcomes of these investments have been mixed. In this regard, Hussain emphasizes that “leakage of funds at various levels of the government machinery [means] development funds are making their way into the coffers of the insurgent groups.”[footnoteRef:9] There have been other constraints that have adversely affected the ability of the central Indian government to effect meaningful change in the northeast India region as well, including a lack of the requisite expertise and training that are needed to apply investment funds effectively. [footnoteRef:10] Many developing nations have problems when it comes to waste and misappropriation of funds. Unfortunately, India is not exempt from this. Even so, there is progress over time when it comes to controlling abuse and misuse of funds that re meant to improve the fortunes of the populace rather than allowing some people to pick winners and losers. One problem that has existed, and continues to exist, is that many parties in northeastern and other parts of India are picking these “winners and losers” based on economic and religion lines. Unfortunately, some of the actions against government corruption and missteps are themselves out of line. The aforementioned assassination of Gandhi would be an example. Fortunately, much of the positive developments and shifts are coming straight from Pentecostals. In many other instances, there are causes and efforts organic to the Hindus and other non-Christian groups that the Pentecostals willingly and gladly cooperate with. It all comes down to the loyalty and dedication of some people as compared to people of all stripes that are less moral and constructive. Such paradigms and issues are always in a state of flux. Many parties and people work against the Pentecostals. However, the Pentecostals are quite often part of the solution rather than part of the problem or otherwise outside of the best workings of Indian government and society [footnoteRef:11]. [9: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 northeastern states disturbed areas?” ] [10: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 northeastern states disturbed areas?” ] [11: Gould, William, Taylor C. Sherman, and Sarah Ansari. 2013. "THE FLUX OF THE MATTER: LOYALTY, CORRUPTION AND THE 'EVERYDAY STATE' IN THE POST-PARTITION GOVERNMENT SERVICES OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN." Past & Present 219, no. 1: 237-279. SocINDEX with Full Text, EBSCOhost (accessed December 4, 2017).]

It is important to note, however, that the same level of unrest and insurgency does not exist equally throughout northeast India and some regions remain peaceful and increasingly prosperous. In fact, the characterization of the entire northeast India region as being troubled has further exacerbated efforts to address the problems where they are especially severe. In this regard, Hussain concludes that, “It is very unfair to bracket all these northeast states as disturbed areas. This only proves lack of understanding of complex problems of the northeastern region. It must be understood that no two states of North East are similar. In fact, each state has its own set of problems. They have been grouped as North Eastern region on geographical convenience only (emphasis added).”[footnoteRef:12] [12: Hussain, “Are all India’s 8 northeastern states disturbed areas?”]

Unfortunately, this is the complex and convoluted environment that is facing many of the Pentecostal groups operating in northeast India today. Many of these groups have a lengthy history in India in general and in the northeast in particular that dates to antiquity. Indeed, Christianity can even be regarded as an Asian religion and St. Thomas and/or St. Bartholomew were the founders of Indian Christianity.[footnoteRef:13] Notwithstanding their status as relatively miniscule minorities in the northeast, the historic positive influence of Pentecostals has been significant, especially in the fields of healthcare, social services and education.[footnoteRef:14] [13: Peter C. Phan, Christianities in Asia. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 4.] [14: Phan, 4.]

While the numbers of Pentecostals in northeast India has increased significantly in recent years, especially among marginalized ethnic groups, their presence actually dates back more than three centuries as shown in the timeline set forth in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Timeline of historical growth of Pentecostalism in northeast India
Time Period
Description 1700-1900s In the 1700s, German Lutherans and British Baptists establish Protestant missions in southern and western India. In 1860, revivals in the U.S. and Europe inspire an Indian Anglican to lead a Pentecostal revival in southern India. In the 1860s and 1870s, Protestant churches in southern India attract many Dalits (or “untouchables,” Indians outside of the caste system). Beginning in the 1880s, Protestantism also grows in Punjab, in northern India. Christian conversions inspire Hindu counter-movements, including the Arya Samaj, founded in 1875

1910-1960 An American woman is the first Assemblies of God (AG) missionary to India, settling in southern India in 1915. In 1918, the Indian AG is formally established, and in 1927, an American missionary establishes the first permanent AG Bible college outside the U.S. in present-day Kerala. Indian pastor K. E. Abraham leaves the AG in 1929 and founds the Indian Pentecostal Church, one of India’s largest Pentecostal denominations. The denomination splits in 1953, leading to the creation of the Sharon Fellowship Church. Between 1900 and independence in 1947, thousands of Hindus in southern India convert to Anglican and Baptist forms of Protestantism. According to the Indian census, the Christian growth rate between 1881 and 1931 is 338 percent, compared with 27 percent for Hindus.

1960-1994 This period sees the rapid growth of neo-Pentecostal churches, such as the New Life Fellowship, founded in 1968, which has about 1,500 house churches in Mumbai and 3,000 nationwide by 1996. By the late 1970s, the leadership of the AG and other Pentecostal churches becomes indigenous. A 1988 study finds that more than 3,000 indigenous Pentecostal and charismatic missionaries work among non-Christians.
By 1995, the Assemblies of God becomes India’s largest Pentecostal denomination, claiming 300,000 members. Christianity continues to grow rapidly in northeast India. Of seven northeast states, Nagaland is majority-Christian by 1961 and two more, Mizoram and Meghalaya, are majority-Christian by 1991 1995-2002 The Indian Pentecostal Church has more than 50,000 members, concentrated in southern India. Pentecostals in southern India are estimated to total about 1 million in 1994. The AG church in Chennai becomes one of India’s largest churches, growing to some 20,000 members by 2002

2006-Present The Forum’s 2006 Pentecostal survey of localities in three Indian states with relatively high percentages of Christians – Meghalaya, Kerala and Tamil Nadu – found that more than one-in-ten Christians interviewed consider themselves charismatic or Pentecostal.

Source: Adapted from “Historical Overview of Pentecostalism in India,” Pew Research Center, 2009 at http://www.pewforum.org/2006/10/05/historical-overview-of-pentecostalism-in-india/
Despite their long-term presence and contributions to the peoples of northeast India, the growing religious unrest in the region has resulted in growing numbers of Indians becoming increasingly reluctant to formally identify themselves as being members of any Christian denomination.[footnoteRef:15] Nevertheless, India’s long heritage of religious tolerance (the 1947 India-Pakistan Partition and conflagration notwithstanding), remains firmly in place at the local level in many regions of northeast India today, representing a clear opportunity for Pentecostal groups to gain new converts. In this regard, Phan advises that, “At the level of the neighborhood, communities, religious differences do not generally create problems, with people sharing different foods, rituals, and festivals.” [footnoteRef:16] Many people living in northeast India still subscribe to the traditional notion that all religions are legitimate, varying only in expressions of faith and dogma. As Phan points out that “the idea that only one religion is right and all others wrong was largely an alien concept in the region until rather recently. It is not espoused by Hinduism, the Sufi-influenced Islam of South Asia, or Buddhism. Orthopraxis was usually demanded only by locally-limited religious systems as a condition for common residence.” [footnoteRef:17] [15: Phan, 27.] [16: Phan, 27.] [17: Phan, 27.]

This opportunity for Pentecostalists, though, is countered by some serious challenges. Over the course of the few decades, religion in northeast India has become increasingly politicized due to the region’s lingering economic doldrums. Religious-based conflicts have been used by some fundamentalist groups in both Hindu and Muslim communities to advance their respective ideological causes.[footnoteRef:18] There have been reports of Christians being attacked due to their status as “alien outsiders,” and these incidents have become more commonplace in response to incitements to target Pentecostal groups for violent reprisals by Indian political groups such as the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) for allegedly forcing Indians to convert to Christianity. In this regard, Phan emphasizes that “certain Pentecostal churches from some countries that have recently come to or evolved in India tend to promote the view that only Jesus saves in a very strident, even aggressive, manner. Moreover, they not only preach that no other religion is efficacious, but that all other religions are of the devil - and this may include established Christian traditions.”[footnoteRef:19] [18: Phan, 27.] [19: Phan, 27.]

To the extent that even the perception of this type of “ugly American” forced proselytization exists among the otherwise religiously tolerant peoples of northeast India is clearly the extent to which mainstream Pentecostalists will be challenged to fulfill their missions. Moreover, this perception also adversely affects those who have already converted to Pentecostalism. As Phan emphasizes that “this particularly affects devout Christian youth, who feel their future prospects within the country will be limited by their faith. Needless to say, loud antagonistic attitudes worsen the often already difficult life of long-established Christians.”[footnoteRef:20] [20: Phan, 27.]

These issues help to explain, at least in part, the reasons for Pentecostals having come under inordinately high levels of anti-Christian violence in northeast India in recent years compared to other Protestant faiths.[footnoteRef:21] Like Phan, Rafudeen argues that, “It is their aggressive proselytization activities that make them more susceptible in this regard, specifically [those that] target the young, those between the ages 4 and 14.”[footnoteRef:22] It is reasonable to suggest that if the tables were turned and the children of Pentecostals who have been culpable in these types of overly aggressive proselytization activities in northeast India were targeted by Hindu missionaries in the United States in the same fashion, they would not only resent it, they would take whatever measures that were necessary to make it stop. Indeed, this same phenomenon is being experienced in a number of Western countries where lawmakers fear the growing influence of Muslim’s Sharia law on their societies. [21: Auwais Rafudeen, “Pentecostals, Proselytization and Anti-Christian Violence in Contemporary India.” Journal for the Study of Religion, 28, no. 2 (December 2015): 220.] [22: Rafudeen, 220.]

From this perspective, then, the “routinized violence experienced by Christians, overwhelmingly Pentecostals, on an almost every day basis, especially in rural India” is far more readily understandable.[footnoteRef:23] While some of the routinized violence is comprised of relatively minor types of assaults such as verbal abuse or throwing rocks at the windows of Pentecostal buildings, there have been numerous reports of far more serious types of violence including arson, rape, kidnapping and murder.[footnoteRef:24] Most local observers and national authorities agree that the majority of this violence is being instigated by the aforementioned RSS pursuant to their religious mandate to preserve their “Hinduness.” [footnoteRef:25] Unfortunately, there are entirely too many people that are purists when it comes to religion and/or politics. Sure, most everything in India is not on the most extreme side of the ledger, with the actions of the Nazis and other genocide progenitors being the worst. Even so, the Pakistan/India kerfuffle was very much about people refusing to get along and live together in peace. Pentecostals themselves are conflicted in that they often are themselves rather inflexible when it comes to the beliefs of others. Indeed, Pentecostals would generally want all other people to be Christians/Pentecostals. AT the same time, Pentecostals (or other Christians for that matter) are generally not willing to maim or kill to make that point. Regardless, corruption and religious intolerance are the two major problems that India and Pentecostals face when it comes to making the lives of everyday people better, whether it be spiritually or economically. Regardless of its motives or source, corruption and hatred of all forms need to be destroyed and condemned. Indeed, any presence of counter-liberation and/or cult formations should be avoided whenever possible [footnoteRef:26]. [23: Rafudeen, 221.] [24: Rafudeen, 221.] [25: Rafudeen, 222.] [26: Selvanayagam, Israel. 2015. "Counter-Liberation and Cult-Formation: The Case of a Socio-Religious Movement in Southern India." Black Theology: An International Journal 13, no. 3: 247-257. Religion and Philosophy Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed December 4, 2017).]

Paradoxically, perhaps, one of the other reasons for the increasing violence against Pentecostals in northeast India is the fact that they have been highly effective in their proselytization efforts and are currently the most visible and fastest-growing form of Christianity in India today. [footnoteRef:27] It is important to note, though, that there are other factors involved in the disproportionate targeting of Pentecostals in northeast India besides their aggressive proselytization activities, including the fact that in contrast to Catholics or mainstream Protestant churches, the majority of Indian Pentecostal converts come from the lower castes, meaning they have no material wealth to invest in their communities. In this regard, Rafudeen adds that, “Pentecostals by and large emerge from the lower castes of India. As such, their very public demeanor, as well as the fact that they have no interest in investing in the caste system, is considered a threat to the ritual purity of Indian society.”[footnoteRef:28] Furthermore, the tensions between Pentecostals and many people in northeast India have been further exacerbated by their intentional depiction of themselves as somehow morally and religiously superior to locals, with Pentecostal woman in particular being cited for their overly assertive practices of challenging longstanding conceptualizations of rural Indian femininity.[footnoteRef:29] [27: Rafudeen, 222.] [28: Rafudeen, 222.] [29: Rafudeen, 222.]

Against this backdrop, it is apparent that there are a number of challenges facing Pentecostals in northeast India today, but like the paradox described above, some of these same challenges also represent opportunities. Given the significant amount of financial support that Pentecostal groups in northeast India receive from the United States and other foreign countries, the opportunity exists to follow the examples established by other mainstream Christian groups in India that have focused on charitable works and social services rather than strictly direct missionary work intended to convert as many people in northeast India to Pentecostalism as possible. This may rub some people the wrong way. This is clearly inevitable on some level. However, all conversions and shifts to Pentecostalism will be voluntary and of peoples’ own volition.
This transition from missionary work focused on conversion only, though, may be problematic due to the perception on the part of many Pentecostal groups in northeast India that mainstream Christian churches have become overly assimilated within Indian society and they may be highly reluctant to engage in any practices that may lead them to the same eventuality.[footnoteRef:30] Nevertheless, it is clear that overcoming the perception of overly aggressive efforts to convert northeast Indians to Pentecostalism through the provision of social services and educational resources is a good place to start this process.[footnoteRef:31] Speaking of society, one of the other major factors to consider when it comes to the religious, economic and societal paradigm in northeast India would be the educational levels of everyone involved. A study that looked at this precise subject looked specifically at Pentecostals as proof of this. Indeed, Mathew did interviews with a number of university-educated Pentecostal pastors. A total of ten pastors were interviewed. All of them responded to twenty questions. Beyond that, 150 other surveys were sent to other university-educated (UE) pastors in the country of India, mostly in the aforementioned state of Kerala. Direct observations in just over half a dozen churches were completed as well. What was found included the fact that while education is important, there are other things that accompany education as being both controllable and useful. One example would be the wearing of jewelry. Indeed, many Pentecostals will adorn themselves with jewelry and other fancy garb and materials. However, doing so for newcomers is generally less than wise. Beyond that, it is important to keep services “efficient” and properly structure. In other words, services should not be drawn out and elongated. It is important to hit the important lessons and parts of the faith while at the same time keep things as short as possible. This is due to the notable high-speed pace of life that exists in India, the northeast region of the same included [footnoteRef:32]. [30: Rafudeen, 223.] [31: Rafudeen, 223.] [32: Mathew, John K. 2010. "A Study of the Effects of a University Education upon the Ministerial Behaviors of Indian Pentecostal Church of God Pastors in the State of Kerala, India." n.p.: ProQuest LLC, 2010. ERIC, EBSCOhost (accessed December 4, 2017).]

These types of efforts can help Pentecostal groups in northeast India create new opportunities for growth by addressing the fundamental causes of anti-Christian violence. As the analysts at the Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide points out, “Today in India we are faced with religious fundamentalism, linguistic chauvinism, caste exploitation, political vengeance and ideological conflicts in different parts. The root cause of all these issues is poverty. Unless churches or Christian communities address this issue strategically it is impossible to do any kind of mission in India.” [footnoteRef:33] In fact, the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) income in two northeast Indian states, Assam and Meghalaya, was less than the national average for all of India of just $6,700.[footnoteRef:34] It is widely agreed upon and known by many that there remains a huge influence from religion on the economics and societal structures of India. This is not new. However, the precise manifestation and examples of this are changing with each passing generation and century. Indeed, there has been a modern shift that has not really been seen before. However, this shift is not remotely monolithic or singular in nature. This would include in northeastern India. Even the Pentecostals and their customs or norms take on differing and changing forms. The main example of this is that Pentecostals are able to shape and mold their message and presentation based on the economic, social and governmental realities that exist in a given area. Put another way, the Pentecostals of northeast India will have much the same goals and plans as those in the United States or elsewhere in the West. However, these differing paradigms will otherwise take on very different forms and functions [footnoteRef:35]. [33: “Mission Challenges from Contemporary India.” 2014 Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide. https://www.cccw.cam.ac.uk/.] [34: “Per capita income in North-East states.” 2017. The Hindu Business Line. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/per-capita-income-rises-in-5-northeast-states/article2316700.ece.] [35: Offutt, Stephen. 2014. "Multiple Modernities: The Role of World Religions in an Emerging Paradigm." Journal Of Contemporary Religion 29, no. 3: 393. Complementary Index, EBSCOhost (accessed December 4, 2017).]

Based on the foregoing antecedents of the challenges, yet another opportunity exists for Pentecostal groups in northeast India. In this regard, the analysts at the Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide conclude that, “In order to strategically develop mission thinking and mission action, the Christian communities have to find new ways of relating themselves with people of other faiths, people of other castes and people of other doctrines.”[footnoteRef:36] In the final analysis, then, Pentecostal groups in northeast India are faced with some profound challenges but many of these are balanced by significant opportunities to help improve the lives of the people of northeast India in the future. Pentecostals are by no means pure and completely innocent when it comes to forcing their views and ways on others, at least in some instances. However, the group is generally positive, productive and peaceful. Even with the occasional wrongs that they do, Pentecostals are among the most victimized and targeted groups in the entire world. Northeast India is certainly an example of this. All groups have their people that are misguided. However, Pentecostals are treated in a way in northeast India that is rather daunting and challenging. Concurrent to that, thankfully, is the rich and robust promise of the current Indian paradigm. Even so, the totality of the northeast Indian paradigm when it comes to the treatment (or maltreatment) of Pentecostals is also robust and extensive. This is not a casual or half-cocked assertion. Indeed, this conclusion comes from a wealth of research and review. This includes extensive interviews, ethnography work and review of prior scholarly literature [footnoteRef:37]. [36: “Mission Challenges from Contemporary India.” 2014 Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide. https://www.cccw.cam.ac.uk/] [37: Bauman, Chad M. 2014. Pentecostals, Proselytization, and Anti-Christian Violence in Contemporary India. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014. eBook Index, EBSCOhost (accessed December 4, 2017).]

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