Physical education teacher burnout and professional concerns

¶ … Aaker (1991, p13) it is the general aim of all researchers not only to discover new information but as much as possible to build on what other people have already done in the field. This is particularly important as these works whether published or unpublished can serve as a cheaper source of mobilizing data. It also helps the researcher to put the issues under consideration into the right perspective. This researcher was not an exception. This part of the research examines the work of other researchers in order to broaden the frontiers of knowledge. In all instances adequate and due references are given for the purpose of future studies and subsequent verification of the facts.

Background of Research

Alliance for Excellent Education has been at the forefront of inquiry into the statistical revelation of or the growth of high turnover of teacher in both first and second cycle institutions across the globe. The Organisation reports in its quarterly bulletin that nearly 23% of teacher turnover recorded in the last five years has increased to about 31.32% as at the end of the year 2008. It is the estimation of the entity that the number of teacher turnover is expected to reach the 35.44% threshold by the close of the first decade of the twenty first century. This state of affairs has reignited the work of researcher into the possible causes of this state of affairs. Paramount among this but which is generally of not specific interest is the issue of teacher burnout. The situation among physical education teachers is even more precarious as the global trend of the debilitating effects of burnout among this group of teachers has reach an alarming level.

United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation which is the UN's body in charge of issues of education has disclosed that the problem of burnout among educators brings emotional, attitudinal and physical exhaustion crisis and other very costly consequences for both the teacher and those with whom he/she works.. The individual consequences of burnout may be in the form of psychosocial, psychological some of which include lack of low self-esteem, clinically signi-can't depressive symptoms and low self con-dence (Schonfeld, 2001). In addition, individuals who feel particularly ineffective report low job satisfaction which is usually accompanied by resentment, frustration, boredom, irritability, anger, and helplessness (Blase, 1982). According to Grayson and Alvarez (2008) burnout if not prevented can result to psychopathology and deterioration in social and family relations (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005) while physical well-being of the teacher can be compromised because of the experience of burnout.

The justification to contain burnout as much as possible is further justified by the recent disclosure by (Blase, 1982). that burnouts are responsible for physical challenges such as head- ache, frequent colds ?u and serious cardiovascular symptoms have been linked to burnout (Hock, 1988; Schonfeld, 2001). In addition to the personal rami-cations resulting from burnout, substantial costs are also incurred by the school including increased teacher absenteeism, turnover, career change, mental health and medical claims, deteriorating performance and early retirement (Burke, Greenglass & Schwarzer, 1996). But Davis (2008) claims that this is not the only trouble the teaching profession in particular and the education sector in general have with burnouts. He is of the view that teachers who are burned-out may have reduced tolerance for classroom behavior problems.

In 2005, Kokkinos, Panayiotou, and Davazoglou found out a signi-can't association between burnout and the ratings of antisocial and oppositional student behaviors in a survey to determine the link burnout to the perceived severity of 24 undesirable student's behaviour among teachers. It was also disclosed that teachers negativity may create a cycle in which students behaviour problems are then exacerbated which strengthen the bi-directional aversive relationship between teachers and students. Against this background of an imminent social catastrophe of no mean proportion, an examination of the Burnout, its definitions from across the length and breadth of the research divide and measurement tools and methods is inevitable.

2.3 Burnout and measurement

The term burnout lends itself to a number of definitions Santinello, (1990) defines the term as psychophysical state accompanied by apathy, detachment and coolness in interpersonal relations by feelings of emotional exhaustion of ones psychic resources and of helplessness. For Malach-Pines (1982) burnout comes up as a multidimensional syndrome defined by three independent features namely emotional exhaustion, depersonalization in human relations and low personal accomplishment. It is argued by Slavin (1996) that the term is a psychological term for the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest dominant among general practitioners while Maslach and Jackson (1981) originally de-ned burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Even though the various definition does not considerably depart from the theme of the others apart from variation in their choice of word, the definition of burnout by Freudenberger and Richelson (1980) as a state of fatigue and weariness or loss of physical and mental energy, resulting from exaggerated aspirations to achieve unrealistic goals set by oneself or by society's values is generally perceived as an average definition of the problem of burnout and has been the operating definition for a lot of researches into this syndrome.

It is asserted by Cohen, (1994) that the term was first used in the mid 1970s to define a syndrome peculiar to the helping professionals, such as social workers who because of their job are constantly under stress. He argues that despite the diversity in definitions due to its adoption in different time frame and environment, the central theme posits that the symptoms of burnout are physical and mental fatigue coupled with dissatisfaction with individual, intellectual, professional and self-fulfillment. (Tolman, 1990). The adoption of the term to the teaching profession has a long history and sometimes draws debates as to the distinction between burnout and stress. It is argued by Slavin (1996). that teacher burnout like all other professions traces its roots to three distinct but complementary risk factors namely personality factors, occupational hazards and specific work environment conditions. It sometimes reveals itself as when a teacher cannot perform the day-to-day duties of teaching due to a sense of tiredness, frustration, exhaustion and/or hopelessness. The teacher either leaves the situation or stays in the same position or in general is unsuccessful or ineffective as a teacher. Sometimes, it comes as a teacher's loss of idealism and enthusiasm for work (Putnam 2000).

Other researchers have also identified the syndrome in an extreme type of role specific alienation with a focus on feelings of meaninglessness especially as this applies to the teacher's ability to successfully reach students (Wood M, 2000). Finally the syndrome results in teacher's inability to protect themselves against threats to their self-esteem and well being (Rink, 2005). He further reveals that a number of personality traits influences the behaviour of people in general and teachers in particular and hints that those who have high aspirations, strong achievement drive and high work standards are more prone to burnout as these ambitions will elude them in the long run. It is seen that the causes of burnout in this instance is inherent or based on the personality of the individual involve and not only on external impact.

The occupational hazard as a risk factor refers to societies view and perception of who a teacher is and what he ought to be. Faber argues that the teacher is perceived as an instructor, a moral educator and a character builder. A teacher is considered as of equal value and importance as schools, families and religious agencies when it comes to societal perception. In often times, teachers are unable to meet the challenges or even when they are, their performance is measured according to standards that he or she has no control over. In such instances of failure to meet this standards the teacher may develop feelings of inadequacy that results in burnouts. Lotan (2003) asserts that the nature of the teachers work makes him easily prone to burnout because like other associated profession, the teacher deals with a pupil who have come from different orientations be it political, cultural, religious etc. These Children exhibits ways of life that may not be in conformity with the views and doctrines of the teacher.

Also it is common knowledge that schooling despite it immense benefit and the desire of people to be educated is pursued with a lot of resistance even though this may be linked to other sources other than the pupils own desire in such a situation, the teacher's role as a disciplinarian can be a source of burnout. The character molding process is considered to be a child rearing duty. It involves having to bring a 'near-animal' to the status where he or she can fit into the society and behave like one. The teacher is expected to burn over backward in order to accommodate all manner of abuse from his or her students. There are no general work environment conditions related to burnout for school. These are influence by a number of factors which are usually confined to the specific circumstances of the school. It is argued that teacher are exposed to role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of autonomy, social isolation and lack of self-fulfillment resulting from the special position in the schools bureaucratic system. Coupled with this is the general tendency for the teaching profession to be the least rewarded in the hierarchy of jobs.

The physical education teacher and burnout intersect at two different but related points. Firstly the notion that the teacher's reward is in heaven as some writers argue positions the teaching job as sacrificial for which adequate compensation is not given. The situation among physical education teacher has been exhausted in a lot of research because of specific peculiarities. Parsons (1968) has already discovered that the physical education teacher and the teaching profession's professionalism are highly questionable under the functional theory. Parsons who is the originator of this theory has been one of the forthright analysts of teachers and how society perceives that profession. He asserts that the major factors that determines the status of a profession in the social hierarchy of profession is a result of the degree to which its members offer a service perceived as critical to the clients life and the possession of monopoly over an esoteric body of knowledge necessary to perform this service and the degree of autonomy granted to members of the profession to control the quality of the service. He agrees with earlier claims by (Slavin, 1996) in several instances, teaching is not perceived as critical to students' lives, as much as other professions such as medicine. He further asserts that the re is an inherent perception that the knowledge most teachers hold is not significantly remote from lay knowledge while the degree of autonomy in teaching is very limited within the school organization. (Benveniste, 1986)

Secondly, Bragverman (1974) and Hargreaves (1977) contend that for the Physical Education teacher, the case is even more problematic because of the manual mental dichotomy and work-play dichotomy makes him or her more open to burnout. He agrees with other researchers who argue that the superiority of mental and work-like activities in schools places Physical Education towards the bottom of the school subjects' hierarchy. The marginality of the Physical Education Profession (Benveniste, 1986) as perceived by other teachers (Wood M, 2000), by student and parents and by Physical education teachers themselves may result in a social isolation of the Physical Education teacher in school because principals, teachers, and counselors may think it unnecessary to involve the Physical Education teacher in decisions concerning individual students or the school organisation.

Davis (1981) reported that detachment of Physical Education teachers from the general teaching staff is one of four factors explaining 70% of their dissatisfaction from work. Other researches suggested that colleagues' support may prevent Physical Education teachers' burnout (Kohlmaier, 1981) The Physical Education teacher's role is not as clearly defined as that of the academic teacher. Schools and principals differ in their expectations of the Physical Education teachers. Some are expected to only teach, whereas others are expected to teach and coach. Others are expected to take a more active role in Organising school events and field trips, because they have less paperwork and because of their supposed experience in organizing sporting events.

In most researches regarding burnout, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is the dominant instrument used as a questionnaire to assess self reported teacher burnout. But the characteristics of every situation demand that it be adapted in terms of its general features and principles while incorporating the specific issues under review to enable it measure an accurate account of the problem. Tatar and Yahav who were the first to use this in the education domain adopted a short version of this. In this way; they had students fill out the items on this instrument to report perceived symptoms of burnout among their teachers. The researchers used an adapted version of the MBI (14 items), divided into three sections. In their study, they asked secondary school pupils (N=297), but not their teachers, to score the items describing potential characteristics of burned out teachers. Their findings show that pupils' perceptions of the occurrence of burnout among their teachers can supply researchers with reliable data. The study stresses the importance of the pupils' views in analyzing burnout among teachers, which will ultimately lead to a better understanding of the role pupils' behaviour in the origin of teacher burnout.

Nevertheless beyond the general description of burnout as narrated in the discussions above lies the systematic and conscious attempt to ascribe academic or scientific studies to the field outside the psychology enclave which is besieged with a number of limitations. Farber (1982) objection to many burnout studies concerns how valid data are collected about the phenomenon. He argues that although self-report questionnaires and self-information to medical doctors and/or psychologists may provide the proof that someone suffers from burnout to a certain degree, the debilitating effects of burnout requires an improvement to its assessment incidence. It is also their argument that an examination of current research into the subject falls short of a firm theoretical basis hence the proof of causal relationship between environment stressors and individual health consequences is almost entirely lacking. This assertion proceeds from the evidence that the other behavioral theories which are usually the theoretical framework for these studies lack specificity and ability to explain burnout relationships by interpolation. This lack of sound theoretical framework which unifies and guides empirical research in this area also hinders any attempt to make comparisons among research in this area as each is carried out with its own peculiarities and underlining yardsticks. But in the absence of any specific burnout theory, the Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura (1977) has provided a near perfect (without prejudice to its limitations) substitute for an analysis with the teaching profession in general and Physical Education teachers in particular.

Social Cognitive theory (Person, Behaviour and Environment)

The linkages between the study of teacher burnouts the social cognitive theory can be facilitated by a recollection of its historic antecedents. While other social psychologist Friedman (1992). have classified it as belonging to the right of centre theories considering the process of it development dating back to the social learning theory proposed by Mitchell, & Oslin (1999). embodying the principles of observational learning and vicarious reinforcement. Bandura who is directly associated with the term Social Cognitive Theory as a development from the Social Learning Theory provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning. In 1986, Bandura officially launched the SCT with his book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.

History rightly acknowledges that the original theory was in responds to the burnout crisis that besieged the nursing profession around the time. Even though there were a lot of other theories which this presentation will attempt to draw comparison with, its limitation and inadequacy to fully unveil the psychological intricacies of this problem necessitated this historic feat but Oslin, J., Collier, C., & Mitchell, S. (2001) however contends that The Social Cognitive Theory has its origins in the discipline of psychology, with its early foundation being laid by behavioral and social psychologists. In his view The Social Learning Theory evolved under the umbrella of behaviorism, which is a cluster of psychological theories intended to explain why people and animals behave the way that they do. Behaviorism, introduced by John Watson in 1913, took an extremely mechanistic approach to understanding human behavior. According to Watson, behavior could be explained in terms of observable acts that could be described by stimulus-response sequences (Crosbie-Brunett and Lewis, 1993; Thomas, 1990). Another theme of behaviorist study was the notion that contiguity between stimulus and response determined the likelihood that learning would occur. Over the years, the adoption of the theory to study other aspects of human endeavor has been overwhelming imposing its relevance and usefulness in field of public and private administration, and other behavioral science professions with particular reference to education to which this research is devoted. (Austin, 1990)

The core assumptions of the social cognitive theory explain how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns while also providing the basis for intervention strategies (Banduar, 1997). The Social Cognitive Theory defines human behavior as an interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment. According to this theory, an individual's behavior is uniquely determined by each of these three factors. Personal factors embrace a person's expectations, beliefs, self-perceptions, goals, intentions shape and direct behavior. However, the behavior that is carried out will then affect one's thoughts and emotions. Environmental factors on the other hand suggest that human expectations, beliefs, and cognitive competencies are developed and modified by social influences and physical structures within the environment. These social influences can convey information and activate emotional reactions through such factors as modeling, instruction, and social persuasion. The third factor is behavioral factors. The theory argues that a person's behavior will determine the aspects of their environment to which they are exposed, and behavior is, in turn, modified by that environment.

Akers (1985) on the other hand argues that The Social Cognitive Theory defines human behavior as a triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment (Bandura, 1977a; 1986; 1989). Accordingly an individual's behavior is uniquely determined by each of these three factors. While the Social Cognitive Theory upholds the behaviorist notion that response consequences mediate behavior, it contends that behavior is largely regulated antecedently through cognitive processes. Therefore, response consequences of a behavior are used to form expectations of behavioral outcomes. It is the ability to form these expectations that give humans the capability to predict the outcomes of their behavior, before the behavior is performed. An analysis of this burnout emanating from the magnitude of challenges imposed on the education sector and teachers in general and With specific reference to the application of the theory in physical education, Mitchell, & Oslin (1999) reveals that the obesity epidemic in the United State which was considered a national disaster was the first point of an attempt to adopt the principles of the cognitive social theory to physical education although its adoption in general education came up earlier. The narration unfolds that obesity as a multifaceted issue often being influenced by several factors including poor nutritional practices (unhealthy food choices, overeating) lack of leisure-time physical activity and increased sedentary time (Bar-Or et all, 1998) provided a good platform to test the relation ships since physical education can potentially be the only activity that some school children participate in during the day, it was considered a powerful time to engage children in a behavior change programme.

A physical activity programme based on Social cognitive theory was designed for delivery during physical education in the middle schools. Specifically the following self-regulatory constructs were targeted; self-monitoring, goal setting, social support, environmental aid, self re-enforcement, time management, self-efficacy and tailoring. The programme involved both cognitive and activity components. The cognitive component lessons targeted at social cognitive theory constructs were discussed in the first five to ten minutes of class. Student used work books to complete activities using the ideas outlined in the classroom discussion. Some of the workbook lessons also included a physical activity component (such as the comfort zones activity) while others were completed within ten minutes and students were then led in a structured activity. The activities were selected by physical education faculty member or by the physical education teacher (Ben-Sira, D., Eldar, D., & Ayalon, J. (1990).).

In relations to the physical education teacher, the Social Cognitive Theory's strong emphasis on one's cognitions suggests that the mind of the physical education teacher is an active force that constructs his reality, selectively encodes information, performs behavior on the basis of values and expectations, and imposes structure on its own actions (Jones, 1989). Through feedback and reciprocity, the teachers own reality is formed by the interaction of the environment and his cognition cognitions. (Ben-Sira, D., Eldar, D., & Ayalon, J. (1990).).

In addition, cognitions change over time as a function of maturation and experience (i.e. attention span, memory, ability to form symbols, reasoning skills). It is through an understanding of the processes involved in the physical education teacher's construction of reality that enables his behavior to be understood, predicted, and changed. In terms of reciprocal determinism, the Social Cognitive Theory explains his behavior in terms of a triadic, dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the environment, personal factors, and behavior. However, this reciprocal interaction does not imply that all sources of influence on the physical education teacher are of equal strength. The Social Cognitive Theory recognizes that some sources of influence on him/her are stronger than others and that they do not all occur simultaneously. In fact, the interaction between the three factors will differ based on the individual teacher in question, the particular behavior being examined, and the specific situation in which the behavior occurs (Bandura, 1989). Thus, this model of causation as proposed by the Social Cognitive Theory is extremely complex. (Maalter, 2005, p12)

She (Maalter) further argues that the person-behavior interaction involves also has some influences on the physical education teacher in that the bi-directional influences of his or her thoughts, emotions, and biological properties and his or her actions (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). For example, the physical education teachers expectations, beliefs, self-perceptions, goals, and intentions give shape and direction to hi or her behavior. However, the behavior that is carried out will then affect his or her thoughts and emotions. The Social Cognitive Theory also accounts for biological personal factors, such as sex, ethnicity, temperament, and genetic predisposition and the influences they have on the behavior of the physical education teacher as he is confronted with the challenges of his or her work.

A bi-directional interaction also occurs between the environment and personal characteristics (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). In this process, the expectations, beliefs, and cognitive competencies of the Physical education teacher are developed and modified by social influences and physical structures within the environment. These social influences can convey information and activate emotional reactions through such factors as modeling, instruction, and social persuasion (Bandura, 1986). This is in addition to the natural phenomenon of human beings evoking different reactions from their social environment as a result of their physical characteristics, such as age, size, race, sex, physical attractiveness.

The final interaction occurs between behavior and the environment. Bandura contends that people are both products and producers of their environment (Bandura, 1977a; 1986;1989). A person's behavior will determine the aspects of their environment to which they are exposed, and behavior is, in turn, modified by that environment. A person's behavior can affect the way in which they experience the environment through selective attention. Based on learned human preferences and competencies, humans select whom they interact with and the activities they participate in from a vast range of possibilities. Human behavior also influences their environment, such as when an aggressive person creates a hostile environment. Thus, behavior determines which of the many potential environmental influences come into play and what forms they will take. In turn, the environment partly determines which forms of one's behavior are developed and activated (Bandura, 1989). Inherent within the notion of reciprocal determinism is the concept that people have the ability to influence their destiny, while at the same time recognizing that people are not free agents of their own will. Humans are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by the environment. Thus, humans function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Within this Social Cognitive Theory perspective, humans are characterized in terms of five basic and unique capabilities: symbolizing, vicarious, forethought, self-regulatory, self-reflective (Bandura, 1986; 1989). It is these capabilities that provide humans with cognitive means by which to determine behavior.

In relating the theory's assertion on capability symbolism to the work of the physical education teacher, the Social Cognitive Theory maintains that most external influences effect a persons and as such the physical education teachers behavior through cognitive processes (Bandura, 1989). However, Bandura suggests that it is symbols that serve as the mechanism for thought. Through the formation of symbols, such as images (mental pictures) or words, humans are able to give meaning, form, and contiguity to their experiences. In addition, the capability to form symbols enables humans to store information in their memory that can be used to guide future behaviors. It is through this process that humans are able to model observed behavior. He further contents that symbols provide the mechanism that allows for cognitive problem solving and engaging in foresightful action. It is through foresight that the physical education teacher can think through the consequences of a behavior without actually performing the behavior (Bandura, 1989). Research indicates that indeed much of human thought is linguistically based, and that there is a correlation between cognitive development and language acquisition (Bandura, 1991). A physical education teacher in particular has always being carried out with the purview of human behavioral models in other to appropriately decode and interpret its linkages. While some researcher have stuck to the use of more complicated behavioral theories, the Behaviour Cognitive Theory (BCT) provides an appropriate model for an examination of the nitty-gritty of this research in view of its unique special objectives.

Physical Education Teacher and Instructional Models

Proceeding from the adoption of the social cognitive theory to the issues of burnout among physical education teachers, it can be argued that within the working environment (school setting) of physical education teachers, there are certain factors which combine with his or her own personality inclinations to affect the way he carries out his instructions. There are a number of personality features or inclinations that researchers have confirmed to have a direct relationship with burnouts among physical education teachers. Gender is one such factor that differentiates patterns of burnout characteristics. Bidwell (1965) reports that men generally have less resistance to depersonalization while females report higher emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment. On the other hand, studies investigating age and teaching experience as factors relating to burnout have been largely inconsistent, particularly when the investigations have spanned across different communities and cultures.

It is also the view of Maalter (2005) that despite disparate ?ndings regarding the role of age in predicting burnout among physical education teachers in public school teachers in the United States, a recent study among Hong Kong physical education educators showed that physical education teachers in the youngest age group were signi-cantly more burned out than their older colleagues (Ephraty, N., Arzi, Z., & Ben-Sira, D. 1988). The risk of burnout is greatly increased by teachers having perceptions of unmet or unrealistic goals and a lack of development of professional accomplishment (Maalter (2005).With these feelings come increased levels of emotional exhaustion, negative attitudes toward students, negative affectivity, low self-actualization and a loss of professional efficacy (Schonfeld, 2001; Tatar & Horenczyk, 2001). These negative reactions are associated with decreased quality of teaching, less ?exibility and acceptance with regard to various student needs and poorer overall teacher -- student interactions (Capel, 1991). Researchers have found that student behavior and discipline problems (e.g. verbal disrespect, violence) are the primary reasons cited for teacher stress and burnout (Hargreaves, 1977).

Environmental Concerns affecting Physical Education teachers

Cano-Garcia et al. (2005), claims that there is enough evidence to support the claim that the school environments trigger burnout reactions among physical education teachers by either facilitating or inhibiting an individual's or attitudinal characteristics. He explains that more proximal or salient school factors, such as common student issues, which are extending from the environment, are thought to directly in-uence physical education teacher stress, It is also the argument of Friedman (1995) that typical student misbehaviors including disrespect and inattentiveness accounted for 22% of the variance in predicting teacher burnout across all grade levels. Schonfeld (2001) supports this line of thought by acknowledging that the stress of dealing with disruptive students, the teaching occupation as a whole has become increasingly stressful due to work overload, poor career structure as well as low salaries. This is supported by data from the Norton (2004) which suggest that 7 -- 8% of physical education teachers decide to leave the profession each year, largely due to dissatisfaction with their workplace.

As earlier on alluded to, the superiority of mental and work-like activities in schools places Physical Education toward the bottom of the school subjects hierarchy. The marginality of the Physical Education profession as perceived by other teachers, students and parents, Physical Education teachers themselves may according to Norton, L (1984) result in a social isolation of the Physical Education teacher in school because principals, teachers, and counselors may think it unnecessary to involve the Physical Education teacher in decisions concerning individual students or the school organization. This detachment is what Davis (1981) considers as one of four factors explaining 70% of their dissatisfaction from work. However other researches suggest that colleagues' support may prevent PE teachers' burnout

Other researchers have also premised their argument on the concerns of physical education teachers on organizational factors ranging from power struggles with school administration to federal laws impacting teacher responsibilities. In consolidating this position, they explain that many school managerial structures lack opportunities for communication and interchange among staff as well as adequate support for teachers in particular (Hepburn & Brown 2001). Physical Education teachers may feel that poor administrator decision-making results in consequences such as time constraints, unreasonable paperwork deadlines and inspection regimes in their classes. Other Physical Education Teachers concerns may emanate from the kind of job opportunities offered to them in the school environment. Rovegno P. And Kirk, D (1995) discloses that most of them are expected to take a more active role in organizing school events and field trips because they have less paperwork and more importantly because of their purported unparallel skill in organizing sporting and some time cultural events. It is his view that these varying expectations may be a source of role ambiguity and role conflict. Rovegno P. And Kirk, D (1995) also asserts that the varying expectations of the Physical education teacher may be a source of role ambiguity and role conflict. The dual role of teaching and coaching hides a potential inner conflict, resulting from the different goals of these activities

A main goal of a PE teacher is to better the Physical fitness and athletic skills of all students and to prepare them for physically active adult lives. A coach's goal is to select and advance those who excel in various sports in order to win interscholastic competitions. Although the teacher's approach should be more egalitarian and relaxed, the coach's approach often may be discriminating and competitive. Role conflict and role ambiguity seem to be sources of burnout for Physical Education teachers. While Rovegno et al. (1995) acknowledges that physical education teaching takes place in gyms, tracks, ball fields, or school yards. The physical structure of these "classrooms" can create several problems unique to physical education. First, the Physical education teacher depends on the vise when these are not available. Secondly, the outdoor working condition makes the teacher a target of changing weather conditions, having to withstand extreme heat or cold, while other teachers enjoy the classroom shelter. This issue can be more problematic in schools where basic facilities are not available.

Thirdly, Rovegno et al. (1995) suspects that when working in the open field or school yard, the teacher is more visible and vulnerable to critique by the principal, teachers and passersby while the mere lack of classroom walls enables students to move freely and makes control of the group more difficult. This class structure may naturally cause more discipline problems. Discipline problems can result not only from over-active students, but also from passive students whose passivity is more visible than in academic classes. Discipline problems are a source of continuous stress, resulting in burnout

Finally it is their view that another source of constant worry unique to Physical Education teachers is student safety, which demands constant alertness (Rovegno et al. (1995). Sport injuries can be more easily traced to Physical Education teachers' neglect than can mental harm resulting from other teachers' neglect. Blame for these physical injuries may create feelings of inadequacy and burnout. Thus the special standing of physical education in school, the varying role expectations and duties, and the special class structure differentiate between physical education teachers and other teachers. This leads us to believe that the levels and causes of Physical Education teachers' burnout differ from those found in other teacher burnout studies.

Physical Education Teacher Burnout influences on Instructional Models

Maalter (2005) argues psychologist have been beneficiaries of modern management concept such as the marketing concept which posits on the strength that all marketing activities are will yields effective and efficient results if the consumer is planted at the heart of all marketing activities. The modern education philosophy falls in line with this point-of-view hence the gradual shift from the old teacher engineered, teacher centre and teacher directed approach to education. The preponderance of these theories which stand in favour of teaching methodologist that plants the student other than the teacher at the centre of all teaching activities and learning process has led to the development of a number of models of learning intended to actualize this objectives. Some of these include sports education, tactical game plan and cooperative learning.

These models emanate from the point-of-view that the pedagogical study must make the teacher a facilitator of the learning process within a student centered environment. Maalter further asserts that in this way the teacher purposefully shifts responsibility to the student engaged in authentic, meaningful and learning task. Through these models the teacher is seen as facilitating models learning activity that have the potential to provide students with a holistic education that promotes social, physical and cognitive leaning outcomes. In this way decision making, social interactions and cognitive understanding for students is upheld by the student from the onset. But these good intensions of the new models may not be entirely realizable in circumstance where there is burnout. This is because contrary to the view of Hargreaves (1977) that the work of a teacher has been subsumed to that of the effort of the student, these theories rather provides a deeper role for the teacher making him an indispensable tool as far as the actualization of the noble ideals of these theories are concerned. It therefore stand to reason that any burnout effect on the teacher will in one way or the other affect the extent to which he or she adopts and implements these instructional model. In other words, the burnout effects will invariable have an effect on how the teacher gives instruction to his or her students.

One of the instructional models commonly used nowadays by physical education teacher is Sport Education. According to Siedentop (1994), this is an instrumental model which links the sports taught in physical education to the wider sporting culture with particular focus on authenticity. It is Siedentop's belief that the essential features of sports that lead to its attractiveness are rarely reproduced in physical education. His model is thus premised on a list six key features of the sports experience that make it authentic. These according to him include the fact that sports is done by seasons players who are members of teams and remain in the team for the entire season, He further argues that seasons are defined by formal competition which is interspersed with teacher and student directed practice sessions in a festive atmosphere in which the season (and particularly the culminating event) takes place. Siedentop (1994) contrasts these features with the typical sports unit within physical education where units rarely last longer that three weeks, team selection is changed daily and is usually ad hoc, and very little (if any) of the particular sport's culture and ritual is transmitted through the experience.