Philosophers Have Spouted Doctrinal Differences

¶ … philosophers have spouted doctrinal differences and a wide variety of theories that tend to relate such differences in more concrete terms. Currently many of these theories are still studied, discussed in a vigorous manner and espoused by many as the panacea of life itself. Differences seem to be along the lines of either the analytic viewpoints or the personal experience viewpoint. Analytics often has as its focus language, science and mathematics, while the personal experience viewpoint often focus' on the experiences the individual has throughout life, and especially the affects each experience has on that individual.

Phenomenology is among the theories espousing that personal experiences are the reason for living. In a recent book review on the Things Themselves: Phenomenology and the Return to the Everyday the author wrote, "The tale breathtakingly illustrates the truism that we deepen the grasp of our own culture by encountering one that differs from it significantly" (Lawrence, 2007, p. 156). The key to phenomenology seems to be that the individual experience as many different cultures and various events throughout life as seemingly possible.

Phenomenology is a philosophy that considers both the events themselves, as well as the effects on the individual experiencing such events. Experiencing these events in different ways has led to the philosophy of phenomenology. Different types or styles of phenomenology have being described in different ways. Dialectical phenomenology and transcendental phenomenology are two of the more common descriptions, and they are often confused with each other.

The dialectical aspect seeks to discover the absolute, ontological, logical and metaphysical spirit behind the phenomena, while the transcendental seeks to extract the essential components of the experience, the essence of the specific event. The philosophy itself has been described as the study of 'being'. One report states, "The phenomenological orientation is distinguished by systematic attention to feeling qualities, intentions, ascribed identities, and presuppositions about objects" (Zagorin, 1999). Not only are the different approaches to phenomenology, there are also different attitudes within the various studies. A study states that, "the creation of knowledge is a collaborative effort between many parties, among them, philosophers, theorists and practitioners" (Berci, Griffith, 2005, p.405). This is especially true in regards to the many approaches espoused concerning phenomenology.

Many of the approaches include differences based on gender, or the way the two different genders view the same type of experiences. This difference in perception has led to contention and dissension even within the ranks of the phenomenologists. What is ironic in nature is that many of the experts who disagree one with another use as support for their positions opinions based on how they feel concerning their perceptions of events.

Since phenomenology has been described as the study of the entire being, there is a lot of room and flexibility to the theory. "The phenomenological orientation is distinguished by systematic attention to feeling qualities, intentions, ascribed identities, and presuppositions about objects" (Lawrence, p. 156).

Qualities, intentions, identities and presuppositions in phenomenology terms are all components that enhance or support a person's being. An archetype is generally understood to be an idealized model of an individual, personality or a behavior. One famous philosopher, Carl Jung, took phenomenology to a different level, but much of Jungian philosophy is complementary to phenomenology. Jung was famous for developing archetypes. Phenomenology's focus on qualities of experience are comparable Jung's archetypes. Additionally, Jung collaborated with a number of other philosophers including Wolfgang Pauli, and between the two of them, they were able to change the way many philosophers viewed phenomenology. In fact, one article touted the opinion that between Pauli and Jung the theory of synchronicity was transformed into an understandable principle.

Jung and Pauli's common reflections went far beyond psychology and physics, entering into the realm where the two areas meet in the philosophy of nature. In fact, as a consequence of their collaboration, synchronicity was transformed from an empirical concept into a fundamental explanatory-interpretative principle" (Marialuisa, 2004, p. 707). Synchronicity, as defined by Jung, is known as a relationship between ideas, especially when that relationship is not causal. Jung wrote that synchronicity was when the cause and effect of relationships between ideas were simultaneous. He also wrote that synchronicity goes hand in hand with presuppositions. Presuppositions have to do with assuming that truth is evident in certain statements, discourses and ideas.

A presupposition is normally considered a background belief that does not change in different circumstances. Presuppositions are also different than prior experiences. Prior experiences are what all individuals have in their life, and consequently they influence the individuals perceptions.

Presuppositions are likely different based on the experience(s) of the specific individual, but both presuppositions and prior experiences influence the individual.

One recent study showed "prior experiences were influencers to novice nurses; second, connections were central to making meaning through intuition; and third, dimensions of time, space, and touch proved to be significant in facilitating intuition" (Ruth-Sahd, Tisdell, 2007, p. 115) and intuition is part of what phenomenology is all about. Experiencing life's travails allows the individual to become more intuitive as to other similar instances and occurrences throughout his or her lifetime.

Presuppositions are can be compared to prior experiences in that they show the truth of certain circumstances. Both presuppositions and prior experiences are considered when practicing the theory of phenomenology. A good example of a presupposition would be to ascertain the answer to a question such as; Would you like to do that again? The presupposition in this case would be that the individual had done it before. Another example would be if the individual were to say, 'my dog got hit by a car and killed today'. The presupposition is that the speaker had a dog. Comparing that to a prior experience it becomes evident that they refer to two separate connotations.

Knowing the difference between the two is especially important regarding this particular case study. Police officers who are being questioned for this study may couch their responses in terms of what they believe is truth, or they could be perceiving such truths in context with experiences they have already had in their careers. It is equally important then, if presenting this case study with a methodology that is primarily phenomenological in context, to ascertain a number of factors regarding the responses in this case. A couple of those factors could include how old the police officers are, how long they have been on the force, how their family has influenced them during their career(s), and even if and when they have been involved in any violent situations. Another important factor could be the intuition derived from all of the above factors and how that intuition is employed in various circumstances.

Phenomenology allows for the consideration of these factors, and it is important to remember that there are earlier influences on each individual as they experience life. One expert writes, "Phenomenology as a way of opening is concerned with pre-understanding (Johnson, 2006, p. 73) and in that same article the author states that "Philosophical concepts fluctuate because they always turn on preliminary questions (Johnson, p. 74).

One recent study of novice nurses during the first year of their career showed that, "Ruth-Sahd and Hendy investigated novice nurses and found that they do indeed value intuitive knowing and covertly rely on intuition in their practice" (Ruth-Sahd, Hendy, 2005, p. 450). Intuition is a strong factor in the nursing profession, and is likely to be even more a factor for people involved in the law enforcement field. Intuition can be described as a basis for making decisions in life and one recent article ascribed to the theory that, "One of the most important human skills is our ability to use judgment and make choices, in other words, to make decisions. Both at personal and interpersonal levels, decision-making skill strongly affects quality of life" (Nichols, 2006, p. 40). The decision to participate in this specific study could be a factor in the results of the study according to the phenomenology methodology. Much of that intuition is derived from experiences in life. In a study conducted by Ruth-Sahd and Tisdell, they found that "First, prior experiences were influencers to novice nurses; second, connections were central to making meaning through intuition; and third, dimensions of time, space, and touch proved to be significant in facilitating intuition" (Ruth-Sahd, 2007, p. 116).

All of these factors can be considered when employing a methodology such as phenomenology. Intuition, presuppositions, and prior experiences all have some influence over the individual, especially if the individual is seeking fulfillment and the realization of a 'whole being'. Intuition is derived from those experiences.

Ruth-Sahd, in regards to determining whether such factors as intuition have influence over novice individuals finally determined that; "What all this literature suggests is that adult learners in nursing education settings utilize many different ways of knowing in an attempt to make meaning, including the cognitive or rational, the affective, the somatic, and the spiritual or symbolic domains" (2007, p. 136).

Carl Jung's theory as described earlier was much like Sigmund Freuds, and interestingly enough, he was initially influenced by Freud's work "Like Freud, Jung grounds ego-consciousness upon an unconscious that is, by definition, unknowable -- a mysterious other within the economy of the psyche that serves to unsettle the Enlightenment's darling, "sovereign" ego, for whom meaning and self-identity are marked by self-presence" (Baumlin, 2005, p. 178). Jung espoused the belief that the 'ego' of man was brought together through the experiences, both consciously and unconsciously that the individual experienced. Ultimately these experiences would lead the individual to an enhanced and complete life, leading to exaltation and a 'complete' man.

Phenomenology as a discipline is distinct from but related to other key disciplines in philosophy, such as ontology, epistemology, logic, and ethics. Phenomenology has been practiced in various guises for centuries, but it came into its own in the early 20th century in the works of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty and others" (Smith, 2005).

This philosophy was much like the philosophy practiced by alchemists in earlier centuries. Alchemy, before modern times was considered to be the search for turning metal into gold. According to some sources alchemy was a title given to those men who worked gold. "They called gold-working al-kimiya - 'the art of the land of Khem' - and so, according to one account, the word 'alchemy' was born" (Mysteries, 1992). Gold working, or the transmutation of metal into gold is the most common usage for alchemy, but many experts now believe that alchemists often used that particular usage as a guise to protect themselves against the Catholic church during mideivel times. The experts believe that alchemists could have, and probably did mean that they were living this life to savor and experience each event, mixing all experiences together to create an ultimate being, or an ultimate self. These experiences are much like the archetypes that Jung professed led to a more complete life. Another consideration in this aspect would be the 'philosopher's stone' that many alchemists believed would assist them in turning metal into gold and some even believed that it would make them younger. Most philosophers espousing a phenomenological point-of-view believed that alchemists may have had the right idea, and that there certainly could be external factors that would always influence mankind's actions, but that a philosophers stone was in actuality a compilation of experiences from an individual's life, coupled with presuppositions and concious choices, complemented by archetypes and prior experiences that all influenced the individual.

Being able to collate all these factors and experiences into a life that results in a higher 'spiritual being' is conducive to this particular study, even if the participants have no idea that they are the subjects of such speculation. Observing the methods employed by the individuals to come to a conclusion concerning their individual experiences will result in valuable data regarding the experiences themselves, as well as intuition, spiritualness and completeness of being. There is such a wide variety of philosophies and theories that coincide with phenomenology that keeping the main ideas in mind will be helpful in determining the most comprehensive results from the study itself.

A finding from a recent study could likely be considered the perfect example of phenomenology and its complementary theories. The study states, "no incentive system based solely on extrinsic rewards can motivate persons properly" (Rosanas, Velilla, 2005, p. 84). Keeping this thought in mind, phenomenology allows the researcher to understand that there are a variety of external and internal forces working on the human psyche and that each human being is influenced in different ways, by different events.

As stated above, much of the human psyche is influenced by perceptions, presuppositions and prior experiences. "Phenomenology as a discipline is distinct from but related to other key disciplines in philosophy, such as ontology, epistemology, logic, and ethics. Phenomenology has been practiced in various guises for centuries, but it came into its own in the early 20th century in the works of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty and others" (Smith, 2005).

Knowing that phenomenology came into its own in the early 20th century, and at that time, women in society were not perceived in the same manner as they are currently perceived, it is not so unbelievable that today's feminists may perceive that certain philosophies do not take their gender into consideration, and that phenomenology is one of those that is biased towards men's feelings rather than those feelings, thoughts and emotions of women.

Many key scholars and philosophers throughout history have suggested that women's feelings and emotions were inconsequential and therefore have derived theories based solely on men's experiences. "Scholars agree that Hegel appears consistently to deny women the ability and the opportunity to achieve what he esteems as the highest expression of human life: self-conscious reason, or the ability to know (oneself as) spirit (Geist). He does so on the basis of their sex" (LaMothe, Kimerer, 2005, p. 122). That women are now attempting to affect a change regarding this common perception is understandable, and in fact, many feminists are considered radical in their efforts to do so. Many feminists espouse the belief that they are "prepared to question and possibly reject the underlying assumptions and values of philosophy." In particular, radical feminists challenge "philosophy's orientation around oneness, unity, or identity -- one truth, one method, one reality, one logic, and so on" (Simons, 1999, p. 162, 166). Hegel, in particular, was a philosopher who believed that women were of little consequence in men's journey to achieving the ultimate being.

LaMothe states of Hegel's beliefs that, "his vision for becoming a self-conscious subject -- or seeing (oneself as) "spirit" -- requires taking responsibility for the insight that every act of reason expresses an experience of sexual difference" (p. 123). Other studies have shown that women might be correct in their assertions that certain philosophies cannot be considered from their point-of-view. This is important in regards to this specific study because women are now integral to the workings of most modern day police forces, not only from the aspect of the physical job requirements, but the mental decisions that must be made on a daily basis. Women perceived events in a different manner than men, and it is therefore likely that the questions asked in this study will elicit different responses from women, than they would elicit from men.

One recent article contended that "men tend to view their own aggression as an instrumental act aimed at imposing control, whereas women tend to view theirs as an expressive act resulting from a loss of self-control" (Alexander, Allen, Brooks, 2004, p. 650). Espousing such radical differences in the way men and women perceive the same events could probably lead to a lack of understanding in regards to the philosophy being touted. Some individuals would probably not even adhere to any of the guidelines being presented by the philosophy, or would shun the thinking altogether. Already, "radical feminists see that there is no space for women's inclusion within most philosophical systems" (Green, 2002, p. 3).

Phenomenology seeks to include all experiences from all viewpoints, and therefore, as a methodology all responses should be considered as to their particular veracity when seeking to come to a fair conclusion. This can be done with a conscious choice by the researcher and it should be remembered that in regards to phenomenology "the same object appears differently in various situations or that different things viewed from a single vantage point appear the same is not an unusual but is rather a common fact of our everyday perceptual experience" (Junichi, 2005, p. 2). This fact is true whether the experience is viewed from a man's or a women's point-of-view. There are also differences in opinions from a religious point-of-view as well. Since much of phenomenology has to do with the spiritual or the mystical aspects of life, it is easy to understand the differences perceived by various philosophers in regards to how to apply the teachings and findings of phenomenology. It is also a simple matter to discern how other philosophers were able to mold and manipulate phenomenology into other similar philosophies and theories. Other cultures and countries have also had their own brand of phenomenology, the Asian culture in particular is able to point to a variety of philosophies as comparing to it.

Yogacara and Yoga are essentially the same thing and both seek to establish a connection between the physical and metaphysical aspects of life.

Yogacara allows the practitioner to become more in tune with the forces of life and it seeks to have a calming effect on those individuals who practice it, allowing for more meditation on the events being experienced.

Standard introductions to Yogacara for several decades now have tended to explain vijA±apti-matra as either a Buddhist form of "idealism" or a Jungian psychologism wherein the store consciousness is equated with a collective unconscious...when we attempt to translate the discourse of a Buddhist tradition such as Yogacara, which is epistemological in character (and not ontological or metaphysical, as it is often construed to be), the branch of Western philosophy that has the language most applicable to the task is that of phenomenology" (Muller, 2005, p. 136). Yogacara and phenomenology both deal with the experiences of life, with phenomenology seeking an exploration of phenomena, and yogacara seeking an exploration of the metaphysical aspects of consciousness. "Comparisons have been made between yoga and phenomenology... concerned with the thought of Merleau-Ponty's philosophical predecessor, Edmund Husserl, and the consonance between the transcendental aspects of his earlier thought and that of the more idealist schools of classical yoga" (Morley, 2001, p. 73).

The key in a study such as this one would likely be to seek the logical, absolute and metaphysical spirits behind the concrete aspects of the phenomena and to draw conclusions based not entirely on hard facts, but on the intuitions and feelings of those involved with the study. It would therefore be expedient to have a very open minded researcher drawing conclusions from the elicited answers, remembering that each individual participating in the study comes from a different background.

The study should also allow for the understanding that each individual will have different standards, presuppositions, beliefs, and is affected in different ways by the same experiences. It would also be conducive to the study to remember that this is not a study of physics but a study of psyches. Once study states, "this collapse of the state vector into only one of myriad possible outcomes is caused through the act of observation by a conscious observer, and he notes that consciousness lies outside the laws of physics as currently constructed" (Stokes, 2000, p. 340).