Poverty and welfare: causes, policies, and social impacts

Sociology of Poverty and Welfare

Defining elements in culture are those of language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects which are passed through generation to generation. Further culture can be separated into subgroups of material culture and nonmaterial culture. Components within a culture are inclusive of symbols, gestures, language, values, norms and sanctions, folkways and mores." Those who participate in social research or sociologists place their reliance on three main theoretical frameworks which are symbolic intereactionism which is defined in the focus on languaging and human relationship elements in intimate group settings which gives emphasis to the construction and communication by the individual through use of symbols or micro-analysis. In the thinking of today there is little disagreement that there is not an existence of a definitive in poverty that is "the" end-all in relating the meaning of the existence demonstrating the meaning of poverty. Globalization is new in the theorem arena in relation to reflect on poverty. The studies that are recent in relation to: "globalization, regionalization and their local manifestation in 'globalization' revealed an extraordinary variety of micro-social" causal factors and reasons within the framework of social processes and consequences that are of a broader nature.

The Sociology of Poverty and Welfare

Statement of Thesis:

The purpose of this work is to research the sociology of poverty and welfare. This work will identify the conflict and individualistic and cultural perspectives in poverty and welfare, will give a description of six sociological explanations relating to the two identified perspectives of poverty and welfare and will evaluate three of the sociological explanations. Further this work will give a description of at least eight sociological studies of welfare and poverty with at least four representing the different sociological perspectives as well as four evaluations of the sociological studies. Finally this work will provide a description of four main constraints which could affect the work of the sociologist in their study of welfare and poverty.

Review of Literature:

Defining elements in culture are those of language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects which are passed through generation to generation. Further culture can be separated into subgroups of material culture and nonmaterial culture. Components within a culture are inclusive of symbols, gestures, language, values, norms and sanctions, folkways and mores. Further stated is that "language is considered the essence of culture because it makes allowances for shifts in the cultural fabric beyond the boundaries in the present and gives way to a social past as well as a social future. Those who participate in social research or sociologists place their reliance on three main theoretical frameworks which are symbolic intereactionism which is defined in the focus on languaging and human relationship elements in intimate group settings which gives emphasis to the construction and communication by the individual through use of symbols or micro-analysis. Secondly is that which is referred to a "functional analysis, which is the idea that the various parts that comprise what is known as society when properly working, is a contribution by each part to the across the board stability of society or macro-analysis and third is that which is called the "conflict theory" which places emphasis on the inequalities expressed in societal elements and encompasses an understanding of the struggle to gain control over resources as the definitive element and base ingredient in "social life" further understanding that this is on a continual ever repetitive basis which is also a "macro-analysis."(Vanguard University 2004) Further related is that the method of research utilized greatly is dependent upon the questions to be asked, the access to the subjects on the behalf of the researcher, resource availability, training of researcher and the basic fundamental importance and ethical consideration. (Vanguard University 2004) There are six (6) identified methods in research or research designs for information procurement, or gathering which are as follows:

1. Surveys

2. Participant Observation

3. Secondary analysis

4. Documents

5. Unobtrusive measures

6. Experiments

There has been pronounced difficulty experienced by those who have attempted to assign a definition to poverty which will be acceptable to everyone. The reference to poverty is one that is inclusive of aspects of social and economical elements that are not elements desired by any individual or group in any part of the world. There also exist many theoretical perspectives and views of poverty in the sociological field. Poverty has been defined as being what is termed "absolute poverty" based on the assessment of what is considered to be the calculation of minimum subsistence in terms of housing, clothing and food in order to lead a healthy life. (Rowntree 1899) Other researchers in sociology define poverty in "relative" terms based on the belief of a link existing between poverty and inequality. Peter Townsend (1970) made the claim that poverty could only be viewed in an objective manner through the concept of that which is termed "relative deprivation." The theory of "relative deprivation" states that poverty should be measured in terms of the resources that an individual has available and should be defined in terms other than the singular term of an individual's income but also should be inclusive of other social factors of participation. Townsend's view of poverty in relative terms was to lay the foundation or give objective explanation to poverty in contemporary Britain. However, the index itself can be viewed as a subjective opinion which renders Townsend's research to be classified as "not" objective.

In the thinking of today there is little disagreement that there is not an existence of a definitive in poverty that is "the" end-all in relating the meaning of the existence demonstrating the meaning of poverty. Globalization is new in the theorem arena in relation to reflect on poverty. The studies that are recent in relation to: "globalization, regionalization and their local manifestation in 'globalization' revealed an extraordinary variety of micro-social" causal factors and reasons within the framework of social processes and consequences that are of a broader nature. According to Rinsum and Ruijter (2002) That is the basis for the importance assigned to transnational and transcultural comparisons gained so much weight in importance in the study of sociological research as they are very adaptable in achievement research and globalization contradictions. The idea in "sustainable development" which is society that through developmental sustenance processes fully provides for the society. According to Rinsum & Ruijter (2002) the concept expressed in sustainable development was integrated into intellectual fashion and it continues to gain validity in social context and relevant value.

Many investigations by sociologists have been launched into examining the feelings of people toward that which is termed "social differentiation." Another aspect in Sociological research is the theory of "Stratification" which is the term used to describe the 'layers' that exist at the societal level. Some hold the idea that the possibility exists for society to effectively operate outside of a defined structure and it is a given in most communities that separation exists between the classes of people within the community. Revolutionary German philosopher, Karl Marx, formed the basis in conceptual revolutionary thought in what is known as the social order of "Communism." Stratification among classes does not exist in the communist societal framework. According to the belief held by Marx there existed in all societies divisions into two groups which was assigned by the ownership of the organization and the means of production owned by the organization. The groups were classified as the bourgeois and the proletariat or the middle class and the worker group respectively. (Marx, 1970) the development of social stratification was described in the Communist manifesto in 1848. Marx referred to the gathering of basic necessities as being "primitive communism" due to the fact that no one "owned" possession therefore there was not any stratification in society.

Max Weber, a later theorist, although influenced by the work of Karl Marx did not agree with Marx's theory because in his view it was altogether too "deterministic." Marx was a "structuralist" in that he believed that people were shaped by the society in which they existed. Weber on the other hand was a "social action theorist" with beliefs that action and interaction by and among individuals create society. Weber's idea was that instead of the idea of stratification that the idea of "life chances" was most applicable demonstrated by the wealthy who had more "life chances" than those in the lower classes. While Marx divided society into only two classes Weber identified four distinct classes which were the "upper class," the "middle class," the "working class" and the "poor." Social inequality which is accredited to be in existence due to industrialism and capitalism is the view held by both Marx (1970 Marx sees these facts as a scenario inclusive of a revolution in the end. Capitalism is a given in the modern world with the acceptance of social inequality a foregone conclusion. The complete eradication of inequality on the social level is a very unlikely proposition.. The definition of poverty is one that has cause researchers a great deal of perplexity in the attempt to assign definition to this element in society. Interpretive sociology does not agree with the thought that behavior is related to society as effect is related to cause since this entire idea is dysfunctional with that which composes social life in reality. Interpretive sociology holds that understanding of our fellow man should be the pursuit of each day as sense is made of their individual societal existence. Seeking to understand is the concept held in interpretive sociology instead of the seeking of an explanation. Therefore it is understood that "structural" or that of Marxism and Functionalism (i.e. The interpretive/interactionist/social action sociologies) as well as Weber's interactionism, ethnomethodology and the Structural arguments in sociology that a "science of society" is likely. Therefore, there exists an agreement even among the interpretive sociologies. The natural science argument is based on "cause and effect" principles. That claim that the behavior of humans is the effect of some cause in society or class structure is also considered a positivist view because of the accreditation to human behavior as being the same as a storm, lightening strike or other natural phenomena as well as the fact that the implicit claim being that the only way of gaining social world knowledge is through scientific methodologies. The interpretive sociology holds the "anti-positive view" in that the interpretive idealism is completely against the idea in the behavior of humans being accredited to something else within society.

The Humanist view, or the "radical" viewpoint is that natural and social sciences are very distinct in a fundamental way. In this view meaningful interpretation is applied by social science with patterning regular between events and the subjectivity in the relationship and the subject matter is one of communication in a common and shared world. Two critical aspects are that of the "Humanist" and the "radical." Both of these views make the assumption that there is an objective in existence within natural science that applies contrast.

There exists in the political-societal realm of the influences and factors in poverty the fact that poverty is a desired condition in many cases by the "powers that be" within the world that seek to and accomplish gaining control through the impoverishment of other human beings. The nineteenth century was the century in which "individualist" theories of poverty were that which was common. Spencer (1874) held that the individual was to blame for poverty. Spencer's idea was that those individuals too lazy to work deserved a life of poverty and that assistance from the state was not considered to be Poverty gave rise to the work incentive in Spencer's view. There are other theories labeled to be "cultural theories" which do not place blame on the individual but instead on the cultural or subcultural factors in society. A British sociologist, David Marsland held the belief that it has gone too far with welfare payment provided by the state because the society has become dependent in an unhealthy manner on the benefits and further that the benefits only avert them from seeking the work that they need so badly. Marsland's idea is that the welfare and poverty state of living is "intergenerationally transmitted" due to the fact that the disadvantages expressed in a background of deprivation is one that is very unlikely to be overcome. This theory was further developed by a researcher named Charles Murray who assigned the label of "underclass" to this sector of society first presented in a controversial work entitled "Losing Ground" which was published in 1984. Murray stated during a visit to Britain that: "when I use the term underclass, I am indeed focusing on a certain type of behavior in response to that condition e.g. long-termed unemployment, but by his deplorable behavior in response to that condition, e.g. unwilling to take the jobs that are available to him." Murray (1989) Murray agrees with Spencer in the idea that benefits only allow the individual to find an "excuse" for underperformance and thereby being that which is labeled the "underclass."

In a comparative study of urban and rural areas with a focus on the consequences and causes of poverty. The research was a summarization on the research on differentials among reasons for rates of poverty in the two areas. The assumption based on the beliefs expressed by Miller and Weber (2003) is that "persistent poverty in rural areas is prevalent with the counties clustered in the Appalachia, the Black Belt, the Mississippi Delta and the Rio Grande. Migration was also stated to play a role in the distribution of policy on a spatial measure with poor people having the tendency to circulate between several poor places and thus perpetuating instead of the preferred "relieving"[of] the spatial concentration of poverty. (Nord et al. 1995; Nord 1998) Further findings of the study were inclusive of the fact that in the year of 2001 the following statistics in the races were discovered:

The following facts were discovered among rural minorities which has been the minorities that are identified as being "particularly disadvantaged": The statistical information states that of the non-Hispanic Black in the area 31% exist in poverty, while 25% Hispanics in nonmetropolitan areas live in poverty. Of non-Hispanic whites there are 11% existing in poverty while over fifty percent of American Indians live in nonmetropolitan areas with economical hardships due to unique situtuations of isolation combined with the effect of historical forces. (Snipp; Gonzales 2003) This empirical study was focused in further aspects of education, employment, family structure as well. Findings were that employment is associated on a general basis with a risk of poverty thereby reduced citing Lichter et al. (1994). Poverty is higher while educational levels are lower in rural areas is also a finding of the study states the study and cites Lichter (1993).

In a separate research entitled "Relative to What? European Poverty by Regional, National and European Standards" the author Olli Kangas writes that the research begins with the "relative concept of poverty" and goes on to study the "how" in the conceptualization of poverty changes if a "relative concept of poverty" is acceptable. Stating the poor are those whose income falls below and remains below the 60% of "the national equivalent disposable income." All European nations are collapsed together in this study into a common data pool and calculation of a poverty line that is common for the entire EU is applied in analylsis that follow. Finally, after "decomposition of nation sates into smaller units of measurement representative of the "poorest and richest" respective countries compilation of data is accomplished from the Luxembourg Income Study.

The study entitled "Social Capital and Logic of Collective Action" states that there is a distinction made between two dimensional parts of social capital thereby bridging and bonding with and inclusive of "exclusive social capital." Bridging in social capital draws larger samplings of society through unification of weak ties together. Bonding in social capital creatres generation of strong "group-based solidarity." However, bonding may also create strong "out-group antagonism" as well as "intra-group solidarity" will may be a negative factor and "detrimental to the common good." The aim is in study of how "social policy programs unify and divide people into social groups" with the aim of study "how institutions are creators of social capital and in different form types which "establish intra-group solidarity as well as other forms of that which is termed social capital to the end of studying the relation of social policy building and the possibilities that exist in welfare reform.

In this third project of Kangas described as "The Nordic Model in Developmental Perspective" the aim of this project, which is a book, is the analysis of the existing model of Nordic welfare from the developmental perspective. The division of opinions is inclusive of: Candidian: This is the opinion that the welfare state of the Nordic model is the optimal providing resources enough to fulfill many various "life projects." However, there is the existence as well of "apocalyptic viewpoints making the predictions of a horrendous ending to the Nordic countries. Three things learned from the Nordic study are as follows:" Kangas (2004)