Classroom Management Theories and Application

¶ … fresh student groups enrolling in education, constant evolutions in student affairs systems are needed for meeting the unique requirements of students. Student affairs practitioners are required to make student transition easier through adoption of programs and policies that aid transition. Students face challenges when moving between educational levels. Recent literature has focused greatly on this topic, as transition is apparently related to 'mental health crises' among students (Eisner, 2011). Students unable to deal with such transition find it hard to complete their degrees/diplomas and achieve educational requirements for enjoying civic and economic security (Bonanni, 2015, p. 1-2; Conley, Kirsch, Dickson, & Bryant, 2014; Mattanah, Ayers, Brand, & Brooks, 2010; Eisner, 2011). Generally, educational institutions' environment, culture, expectations, and structure differ across the nation. But implementation of transition initiatives in school can promote student success. College and high school leaders can collaborate and aid student success. Systems and programs have been developed by educators for assisting students with transitions from secondary school to high school and from high school to college.

Numerous school advisory initiatives have been introduced across America for aiding students with transition. But McClure, Jones and Yonezawa (2010) have described typical program-related issues. Researchers have highlighted, in particular, many reasons for teacher resistance to advisory initiatives and for their eventual failure. They have revealed that a number of administrators might show disinterest; a majority of teachers lack adequate professional development or formal preparation to serve as advisors; and teachers have no time to make advisory plans and preferring devoting their time to preparing for lessons (Tocci, Hochman, & Allen, 2005). Other challenges to program success include: teacher preparation for the advisor role; time block creation for advisories; workload balancing for teachers; advisory program description and notification to parents; cultivation of parent, student and teacher input; and program model construction on the basis of scholarly reports and research (Brown & Anafara, 2001; Johnson, 2009). This paper discusses transition-related issues, reviews related literature, and provides recommendations.

Literature Review

Impact of transitional theories on School Advisory Program Practice

School advisors benefit from transitional theories in several ways. For example, Myrick (1990) observed three guidance approaches, (a) Prevention approach, whose basis is providing high-risk groups of students with special services; (b) Developmental approach, whose basis is individual needs as a response to cognitive development and stages of growth; and (c) crisis approach, in which advisors deal with problems as they surface. The developmental strategy must be adopted to formulate advisory programs. Using this approach, teachers meet needs that emerge as students grow and progress (cited in Ornum, 2014, p. 2).

Among numerous relevant transitional theories, the Role Acquisition Model is most applicable to the area of higher education. College accords students several opportunities to acquire strategies for successfully navigating the dynamic role acquisition process. Nardi and Thornton's model, which comprises four steps: anticipatory socialization, informal role expectation acquisition, formal role expectation acquisition, and personal role expectation development, can ease transition as well. But, Magolda's self-authorship theory is applicable as well, in comprehending role acquisition. The author studied developmental tasks of the 20s age-group, concentrating on ascertaining one's way across life and value exploration. She delineated four phases when defining self between the external and internal: formula adherence, crossroads, authoring one's own life, and one's internal foundation. Self-authorship and role acquisition theories may be applied to transition and career counseling in colleges/universities. (Kraus, 2012, pp. 15-17)

Similarly, socialization theory presented by Twale, Stein, and Weidman builds on Nardi and Thornton's model. It proposes a 4-step professional and graduate student socialization theory: anticipatory, personal, formal, and informal. At each step, students integrate further into college culture, assuming increasing responsibility with faculty involvement, research and mentoring other graduate pupils. The theorists address key socialization aspects linked to each phase. Beatrice Neugarten's work also helps in informing transition-related assistance. The author scrutinizes the significance of age as well as how age constitutes a key societal organizational dimension. People whose actions and behaviors do not conform to societal expectations and norms are regarded as "off-time" whereas conformists are "on-time." (Kraus, 2012, pp. 17-21)

Each of the aforementioned examples portrays practical models and theories applicable to student transition experiences, even very crucial and sensitive transitions to the after-education phase, overlooked by highest education advisors. These works indicate that student transition represents a process, and everybody must prepare for transitions in future. (Kraus, 2012, p. 25)

Issues in application of these transitional theories

While the aforementioned models are relevant to student transition, they do not completely apply to our subject of interest. Nardi and Thornton's theory also eases transition to the 'career phase' of life. Students can profit from ruminating on their new roles and realize that though preparation is essential, it won't necessarily further transition or role acquisition. Likewise, self-authorship theory explains young adult (20-40 years) experiences and hence, is suitable in understanding students about to move out of university/college, or even, perhaps, non-conventional students who choose to switch career/educational paths. (Kraus, 2012, pp. 15-17)

However, in socialization model's application, Twale, Stein and Weidman's dynamics, namely, diversity's effect, technology access, foreign students' experiences, and cultural impacts on professionalization, ethics, and professionalism, as must be considered in the course of critical thinking regarding socialization, may differ and lead to conflict between student groups, thus obstructing transition. Likewise, Neugarten's model applies aptly to non-conventional pupils, since where most higher education students traverse similar paths to graduation, the theory put forward by Neugarten unique implications for student parents, adult college-goers, and individuals with a disrupted high school-college path (e.g., students who might have suffered a traumatic life event or student veterans) (Kraus, 2012, pp. 17-21)

On the other hand, Schlossberg's model devoted to fathoming transition has garnered considerable regard and is employed in fields such as higher education, counseling, and rehabilitation. The theorist describes transition as an event/non-event leading to changes in relationships, roles, practices and assumptions. (Kraus, 2012, p. 20)

For making sense of student transition, Schlossberg recommends understanding its context, type, and impact. Transition may be non-anticipated (e.g., a parent's demise) or anticipated (e.g., college graduation), and may involve non-events as well. Both examples mentioned above initiate transition. However, the preparation and expectations for both events differ drastically. Non-events may be anticipated events that fail to take place (e.g., a student applies for a job but doesn't bag it). Events like graduating, college application, getting hired, relocating when switching jobs, etc. are really what define and shape the complex after-college transition process (Kraus, 2012, p. 20). It has been noted by Schlossberg and coworkers (2006) that transition extends over some time period, when a person moves from the preoccupation phase to the phase of integration with transition. Terms like "moving through," "moving out" and "moving in" benchmark the abovementioned advancement (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8).

Analysis of Schlossberg's Transitional Theory using peer-reviewed articles

Davis and Patton's research "Expanding Transition Theory: African-American Students' Multiple Transitions Following Hurricane Katrina" considers transition theory's reflection of how individuals making sense out of extraordinarily complex transitions, especially effects of the manifold transitions Afro-Americans experienced at the time of Hurricane Katrina. As mentioned previously, Schlossberg and colleagues (1995) identified three kinds of transitions: unanticipated, non-event, and anticipated. The foremost stage in transition deals with recognizing how it appears in a person's life. Transitions like childbirth and marriage that are anticipated encompass normative losses and gains or significant role alterations that take place predictably as one's life unfolds. Unanticipated transitions represent unscheduled and unpredictable events, normally of a negative nature and considered painful, crisis-like or unsettling (e.g., job loss, divorce, premature death in the family, etc.) Hurricane Katrina embodies an unanticipated kind of transition as well. Non-events constitute the third kind of transition; these denote anticipated changes that didn't occur (for instance, a cancelled wedding) (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8-9)

Study findings arose from a greater data set examining Afro-American's experiences with Hurricane Katrina. Selection of novel institutions (i.e., "moving in" assistance) constituted the foremost transition. Affected students claimed this phase encompasses leaving home institutions and seeking another. For instance, one student talked about his decision to enroll in a college near home and family. (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8-9)

Moving-through or adjustment to the new educational institution constitutes the next phase of transition. Three themes emerged as vital to interviewees' adjustment experiences in the new colleges they transferred to: 1) The feeling of being "dropped in" 2) Racial support/tensions and 3) below-par living conditions. As soon as they arrived at their new college/university, transfer students were "thrown into" institutional culture and systems with no assistance or orientation. Lastly, adjustment back to original institutions (moving out) constitutes the third transitional phase. As interviewees started moving out of these transitions post-Hurricane Katrina, they simultaneously "moved into" adjustments of return to familiar territory. They mostly have positive memories about their experiences upon return to their original institutions. One student claims he decided to return to his original college rather than remain at the transfer college mainly because he was tired of feeling lonely (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 10-12). Key themes are developed in sequential order of participant experiences with the three transitional phases post-Hurricane Katrina. The impact and context of transitions, together with student dependence on the 4S (situation, support, strategies, and self) system have been interwoven into the whole debate. (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 9-10)

But, Gilbert and Griffin's work "Better Transition for Troops: An Application of Schlossberg's Transition Framework to Analyses of Barriers and Institutional Support Structures for Student Veterans" reviews Schlossberg's theory of transition for evaluating institutions' influence on transition of veterans to college/university. The work discusses that, in Goodman and Schlossberg's view, various forces impact a person's ability to cope with transition. Besides transition type, the transition process's nature, context, assets and certain resources impact it as well. (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015, p. 72)

However, study findings indicate emergence of three themes from data, as the authors analyzed how educational institutions aim to ease transition of veteran students. Firstly, institutional agents and veterans delineated the significance of services, professionals and offices that recognize and fulfill the unique doubts and problems of veteran students (services and personnel). Secondly, they outlined a need to have special institutional procedures and policies for administration of veteran services, benefits, and data (institutional structures). Lastly, they addressed the significance of having veteran student representatives in student bodies, veteran-specific services and groups, and quality of their relationships with faculty and fellow students (cultural and social support). In each area, colleges offer requisite transition facilitation resources (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015, p. 80).

Meanwhile, DeVilbiss endeavored to comprehend transition experiences of first-time, conditionally-enrolled, standard-age, full-time students, enrolled in a 4-year, medium-sized Southeastern public university from the perspective of Schlossberg's theory. The researcher aimed to acquire a grasp of high-school -- college transition in the first semester at college, since she couldn't be present when students were approaching this phase of life. Study scope and her researcher role disallowed her to aid students with resource strengthening and taking control of their own situations. (DeVilbiss, 2014, p. 180)

Consequently, she made a few appraisals of transition and participant stage in transition. Schlossberg's theory proved highly valuable in finding meaning in participant data and even proved notable in themes evolving across participants' whole transcript corpus. (176) Significant student stress was associated with transition, resulting from greater workload, responsibility and demands on their time. (DeVilbiss, 2014, p. 180)

Even so, in spite of increasing focus on veteran problems, astonishingly few empirical research works study veteran transition experiences into community colleges. Hoggan and Pellegrino addressed the subject via a qualitative research that involved transition of new veterans into community colleges and insight into their experiences, by applying the 4S framework and Schlossberg's theory. Findings include short biographies of the first collegiate year of a couple of female veterans. (Pellegrino & Hoggan, 2015, p. 124)

Authors concluded that study findings are important for faculty, staff and administrators of community colleges for several reasons. Firstly, veterans having children, especially women, are characterized by unique needs. The married veteran women subjects of the study faced difficulties balancing domestic life demands and finding someone to care for their children when they were at school. This constituted a key factor influencing their personal- and college- life trajectories. These findings correspond to the 2010 findings of Rankin, Hardy and Katsinas, who analyzed community college leaders' perceptions with regard to main retention issues of college students. In particular, their study revealed that inexpensive babysitting or daycare services and transportation were the biggest issues influencing retention of students. (Pellegrino & Hoggan, 2015, p. 129)

Several leaders, unfortunately, confessed to a lack of resources for appropriately addressing the above issues. It may be reasonably hypothesized that single veteran mothers face considerable challenges when seeking daycare and finding a balance between their parent and student roles. Further, both married female participants in the study demonstrated a necessity for more inclusive school counseling. Females may benefit from sounder academic planning. (Pellegrino & Hoggan, 2015, p. 129)

Cossy's research into transition aimed at gathering data on transitional experiences and needs of new entrants of Western University. It intended to examine student concepts of success, and formulate a basic transition and success model for students of the university (p. 5). Study outcomes corroborated several assumptions outlined by Schlossberg concerning different kinds of transitions. But the study did not validate every assumption. Additionally, the basis for Schlossberg's model is single transitions, whereas study data indicates occurrence of multiple student transitions, a facet Schlossberg failed to consider. Furthermore, findings reveal that first-year university students experience as many as 3 anticipated, 10 unanticipated, and 2 non-event transitions. (Cossy, 2014, p. 210)

Cossy's non-event student transitions include failure to cultivate a broad friend base and to develop a satisfactory, active social life. The above events do not transpire for a number of students, leading to discouragement and disappointment. Cossy's anticipated transitions are: moving to university from high school, leaving one's home to live on campus, and switching from being supported by one's family to supporting oneself. Students experience numerous unanticipated transitions for which they aren't prepared; for instance, moving to independent studies to teacher-supervised studies, structure to decreased structure, and numerous other unforeseen transitions. Typically, such transitions are negative, crisis-like and disruptive. Schlossberg has observed that with increased impact, students take longer to get across the transition phase. This perhaps accounts for why several students remain in the transition phase till almost the last year of college, and why a few never get to the thriving phase (Cossy, 2014, pp. 211-213)

Discussion

With regard to Davis and Patton's work, transition model proved to be an effective base for study findings. Specifically, the 4S model helped highlight nuances of multiple-transition events for students post-Hurricane Katrina. Moreover, the many coping techniques described as strategies in the model proved important to participants' discussions of the three phases of transition. But the theory fails to cover specifics pertaining to what entails all multiple transition experiences that arise from a single unanticipated occurrence. (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 14)

Meanwhile, Gilbert and Griffin claim that no single right solution exists to ease veteran student transitions. But, understanding group- and individual- level contextual requirements of students across all categories put forth by Schlossberg can guide colleges/universities with regard to kinds of initiatives capable of generating greatest returns on investment. The study offers to lawmakers and institutional leaders a base for bringing institutional attempts in line with surpassing specific obstacles to transition, granting students requisite resources to ease their college-life initiation and promoting their social and academic success. (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015, p. 94)

In contrast, DeVilbiss concluded that students who enroll in college success/transition courses considered these courses beneficial, revealed what they were taught in those classes, and pointed out how such knowledge facilitated their transition. With regard to role changes in adulthood, institutions can offer cooking, time management, and budgeting courses. Student athlete experiences reveal that programming proves essential for them when transitioning from high school to college level athletics. (DeVilbiss, 2014, 197)

Furthermore, with respect to experiences with transitions of a similar nature, while universities/colleges can't control past experiences of students, they can try to make students' current transition experiences positive. Concurrent stress is another important aspect where colleges can aid pupils, as students concentrate more on "moving out" than on "moving in." (DeVilbiss, 2014, 197-198)

In Hoggan and Pellegrino's opinion, veterans may perceive role changes and transition from military services to higher education as a loss or gain based on the situation. Some individuals are quick to adapt themselves to new roles, practices, assumptions and relationships, while others are hesitant and in doubt. Of particular import in this study is the discussion of female participants' transitions, drawing on Schlossberg's 4S frame, proposed in 2011, as a guide (Pellegrino & Hoggan, 2015, p. 128).

While a majority of research works on the subject adopt Schlossberg's theory as their only theoretical basis, Cossy's work analyses data using various theories. It indicates that reframing university transition from one to many simultaneous transitions more effectively captures the numerous challenges faced by students. This can assist universities in evaluating their advisory programs for ascertaining whether they optimally deal with students' needs or not. (Cossy, 2014, p. 217)

Recommendations

Through this study, five key advisory initiative goals have emerged, namely:

1) Cultivation of interpersonal student-staff relationships

2) Curriculum enrichment