Preventing Dropouts Among Minority Middle School Students

Preventing Dropouts Among Minority Middle School Students

The dropout rate of minority middle school students is rising. This can be contributed to a number of factors that cultivate frustration and develop low self-esteem among minority adolescent students. Middle school students already struggle with self-image issues, but when the added pressure of factors such as low literacy skills, poverty within the home, early pregnancy and low regard for education are also introduced, these students become lost in the system and develop the desire to give up or dropout thus eliminating their opportunity to break the cycle of poverty by becoming educated and obtaining higher level paying employment.

Statement of Significance

The educational sector is under pressure to meet the new federally mandated guidelines of the "No Child Left Behind" legislation. Early childhood education has previously been the focus of the national goal that every child will read by the time they complete third grade. Federal and local funding has been poured into primary grade programs and technology in order to meet this national goal. However, very little has been done to face the major problem of addressing the educational needs of minority middle school students to work at keeping them enrolled in school and not dropping out. This issue is important to address since over three million minority students in our nation's middle schools are in serious danger of being "left behind" (Alliance for Excellence Education, 2002). These young people live throughout the country and are the products of all income levels.

Over 15% of African-American adolescents, and 35% of Hispanic adolescents account for the number of middle school minority students who drop out of school (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995). Most of the students who eventually drop out of middle school can be identified ahead of time. Teachers need additional training that will allow them to recognize the at-risk behavior exhibited by dropouts. Teachers should also be trained to focus on students who are failing academically or have low self-esteem tendencies. These students consist of the lowest 25% of achievement are 3.5 times more likely to drop out than students in the next highest quarter of academic achievement, and twenty times more likely to drop out than top-performing students (Carnevale, 2001). Many of the at-risk minority middle school students are unable to read at the end of third grade and their struggles with literacy continue into the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade.

Reading problems affect all subjects, thus struggling students earn no achievement and eventually give up all hope and drop out. Most of the students who are at-risk of dropping out because of reading problems can be identified ahead of time and should receive proper educational assistance. While thousands of high school students can barely read upon high school graduation, the problem begins much earlier in middle school. Less than 75% of all eighth graders graduate from high school in five years, and in urban schools the graduation rates dip below 50% (Green, 2002).

Students pay extreme prices when they choose to drop out of school. The consequences are both costly to the individual and society. Dropouts have fewer options for employment and are usually employed in low-skilled, low-paying positions thus remaining in a cycle of poverty and low self-esteem. These adolescents usually become teenage parents and can offer no better situation for their own children, thus the cycle continues. Other concerns exist for dropouts such as health problems, they are more likely to engage in criminal activities that are often gang related, and become dependent on welfare and other government programs (Martin, Tobin, & Sugai, 2002).

Research has historically shown that the students in the lowest quartile account for about two-thirds of all dropouts (Green, 2002).

Historically, minority students have been exposed to a literature-based curriculum that does not include their cultures and backgrounds. The stereotypical stories that minority students were required to read either did not interest them, had no real connection for them, or presented an ideal world in their not so perfect reality. By continuously being exposed to this type of information, middle school minority students have developed a wall of low self-esteem that contributes to their desire to drop out of school. Only within the last few years has education and publishing included stories such as "A Letter to Amy" by Ezra Jack Keats and other minority culture-based stories within basal readers.

In order to successfully support one's self or a family, all students need to realize the importance of remaining in school and eventually graduating from high school. Educators should work to find ways that encourage middle school students to remain in school. Most occupations within today's workforce demand strong cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills. Employees must cope with innumerable technologies and have the ability to make on-the-spot decisions that would have confused previous generations.

As a result, it is all the more imperative that all students remain in school and attain at least a high school diploma.

Review of Literature

For the purpose of this review, literature was selected based upon the following criteria:

Professional journals and sociology abstracts were utilized.

Key words were used to identify relevant articles to include dropout, early school leavers, alternative education, school-to-work.

Literature selected for the review met the following criteria: (a) published after 1993, (b) provided an empirical description, program evaluation, or research related to dropout prevention, and - identified features of school-based interventions.

A wide range of strategies were located, including interventions for all students in a school or class, however, selected interventions targeted minority middle school students considered at-risk on the basis of various background factors, and selected interventions for individuals clearly in danger of leaving school early were included within the research.

With the "No Child Left Behind" Act, state education departments are revising and implementing a more strenuous standardized testing system. Students are being held accountable for mastery at more grade levels and in additional subject areas such as science and social studies whereas in the past, core subjects were the basis for mastery. Although the goal is to improve students' skills, an unintentional outcome of the shift in policy may be an increase in the dropout rate, especially for students with learning disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Teachers may feel pressured to increase the amount of material covered at the expense of instructional activities that might benefit learners at risk for school failure (Benz, Lindstrom, & Yovanoff, 2000).

The article, Using a Psychoeducational Approach to Increase the Self-esteem of Adolescents at High Risk for Dropping Out (Wells, D., Miller, M., Tobacyk, J. & Clanton, R., 2002). addresses the issue of feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem in adolescents. The authors state "many adolescents, by the time they do drop out, have lost all confidence in their ability to succeed in school and have developed feelings of inferiority." Their research addresses the issue of feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem in adolescents. Specifically, it describes the changes in self-esteem of high-risk students who participated in an eight-week residential program designed to reduce dropout rates. Specifically, it describes the changes in self-esteem of high-risk students who participated in an eight-week residential program designed to reduce dropout rates.

Eighty economically disadvantaged adolescents who were at high risk for dropping out were identified and invited by their school counselors to participate in an eight-week summer program. They ranged from fourteen to sixteen years of age. There were thirty-two females and forty-eight males who participated in the program.

The program was designed to target curriculum weaknesses and include vocational instruction. Students were housed on a university campus for the length of the program including weekends. Five days a week, participants received four hours of academic instruction by master's level school teachers and four hours of vocational instruction. In the evening, they received one to four hours of individual and/or group counseling by psychology graduate students. The participants' self-esteem was measure using The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory-School Form (Coopersmith, 1986). This assessment consists of five subscales: General Self; Social Self-Peers, Home-Parents, School-Academic, and Total Self and includes 58-items. A pretest was administered to participants upon entry into the program, and a posttest administration was completed eight weeks later at the end of the program.

The study showed significant differences were found between pretest and posttest self-esteem total scores. A follow-up study of participants' school retention rates was conducted over the two years directly after participation in the dropout prevention program. The first year after intervention yielded a dropout rate of zero. After the second year, the dropout rate of participants was 6%. Compared to the control group of similar individuals not receiving intervention, the dropout rate was 21.2% for the same time period.

The Psychoeducational Theory was the foundation underlying the program and involved removing adolescents from their current home environments. Therapists and educators then had the opportunity of presenting and discussion educational alternatives to dropping out of school. In addition to increasing academic abilities and providing prevocational training, the program offered participants the opportunity to consult with counselors on a daily basis, all of which most likely contributed to the success of the program in reducing dropout rates. Apparent changes in self-esteem developed over the eight-week period.

Daisey & Jose-Kampfner (2002) report that the dropout rate is currently increasing for Latinos. This results from students feeling discouragement, which they attribute to teacher stereotyping, low expectations, and tracking. Latinos face special social and cultural pressures that prompt many students, especially girls, to leave school during the middle school years. Confusion also comes from mixed messages from home and school, with often competing values about career, marriage, and motherhood (Canedy, 2001). Studies (Banfield, Johnson, Thomas, & Thieroff, 2002) have also identified the following reasons for Latino dropouts: stereotyping of new students and a lack of self-confidence.

Martin, Tobin, and Sugai (2002) found research that identified the top ten reasons that students dropped out of schools as follows:

not enough credits to graduate lack of parental support for education dysfunctional home life working more than fifteen hours a week substance abuse frequent discipline referrals could not adjust to the school setting pregnant or student parent experienced peer pressure not to achieve or to leave school low self-esteem

These reasons are similar to those reported by other researchers (Carnahan, 1994). Dropping out of school is a cumulative process, not an impulsive action (Finn, 1993). A student's sense of alienation is preceded by unsuccessful school experiences, such as poor academic achievement, failing classes, grade retention, absenteeism, behavior and discipline problems, and transfers from one school to another. Dropout prevention efforts should be based on an understanding to include all of these factors and implemented within school systems. The successful programs could ease these alienating experiences, thus reducing the dropout rate of minority middle school students.

Martin, Tobin, & Sugai (2002) identified the following proven successful programs that encouraged minority students to remain in middle school. These programs included: (a) Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors (b) Personal Growth Class - School Within a School (d) Check and Connect (e) Wrap Around Interventions, and (f) the development of an Alternative Education Program. While all of these programs have been successful on an individual basis, many characteristics from each program may be incorporated within a school system to better meet the needs of the students.

The Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors program monitors attendance, behavior, and grades. These factors are indicative of both academic and social engagement and strongly influence a student's desire to remain in school. Data may be used to identify students' needs for referrals to outside agencies or make decisions about allocating resources for interventions while also evaluate program effectiveness (Rumberger & Larson, 1998). The School Within a School is a program that is exemplified by the Multicultural Alternative Middle School Program for At-Risk Students (Weir, 1996). This program was created and tested with 20 students from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The class received support from a staff consisting of one special education teacher, a full-time teaching assistant, a part-time teaching assistant, and a county mental health worker. Features that were critical to the program included the following: (a) self-paced learning and flexibility to accommodate alternative learning styles, (b) opportunities for inclusion within the general school setting, - coordination with community agencies, (d) staff inservice and training, (e) interdisciplinary thematic units in academic areas, (f) daily journal writing, (g) cooperative learning and hands-on projects, and (h) an ongoing evaluation. At the end of the initial testing, survey results concerning student attitudes indicated that the majority of students felt they were trying harder and learning more within this environment than in traditional classes.

Personal Growth Classes have been utilized on an informal basis for many years. The popularity of these classes for counseling at-risk students has grown over the last few years. Students are identified for participation and attend a class with a curriculum to include specific skills training that is based on four units: (a) self-esteem, (b) decision making, - personal control, and (d) interpersonal communication. This program is effective in reducing drug involvement and improving school achievement.

Check and Connect is a dropout prevention program designed to encourage identified at-risk adolescents with learning and behavioral disabilities to remain in school. This program partners mentors who are certified teachers or school employees with students and their families over an extended period. Mentors receive on-going training. If a student changes schools within the district, the same mentor continues to works with them. The mentor regularly checks on students' engagement with school and promptly intervenes if action is needed. Services are individualized according to the specific needs of the student and family. Documented results of this program are based upon evaluations that indicate a 50% reduction in dropout rate (Martin, Tobin, & Sugai, 2002)).

The Wraparound concept is utilized for students who are identified as at-risk and present behavioral challenges that require intervention and support in several areas. Wraparound is a term used when school staff and personnel from community agencies collaborate to provide services that "wrap around" the student and his or her family. This type of program has proven effective with preventing dropouts of students with multiple problems. An individual plan is created for each student and may involve several of many alternatives such as school services, student services, family services, and community services. All of the services combine to assist the student with areas such as preventing out-of-school suspension, transportation to court or medical appointments, emergency funds for bill paying, and also include recreational coaching.

Alternative Education programs offer a wide array of services to the typical school environment. Many times this environment is stricter, but others offer individualized services in a smaller classroom size. Students utilizing this type of intervention are typically already in trouble with the law, in risk of failure, or exhibit dangerous behavior. Their removal from the typical school setting not only benefits themselves, but those students who were intimidated by their presence.

Intervention

There is no promise that a single intervention will be successful for all at-risk students. However, a program that involves various methods and allows for flexibility will better fit the needs of more students and more likely be successful. The following intervention is designed for use with 6th, 7th, 8th grade middle school minority students, which address the previously identified problems of low self-esteem and poor academic standing. This intervention will include many of the methods discussed previously and offers alternative types of service delivery to enhance preparation for the completion of high school. Donald and Prevatt (2003) conclude in their study that there is no one particular best practice or beneficial treatment currently available to address the problem of school dropouts among middle school minority students even though a number of intervention programs appear to hold promise.

However, the interventions utilized with greatest frequency in the studies reviewed an "emphasized academic enhancement, psychosocial skill development, mentoring, and parent/teacher behavior management training" (Donald and Prevatt, 2003). Programs that focused upon academics or programs that contained multi-components emerged with the most promising empirical base. In studies that included interpersonal relationships between school and family members and among individuals at school, increasing respect and consideration shown by school staff members to students, and individualizing positive and function-based support for students with behavior or attendance problems were deemed the most successful.

Adam (2003) examined the work of Angela Valenzuela, Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction and of Mexican-American Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. Valenzuela contends that the dropout rate is the end product of an extended process of being disengaged. She believes that students, who were considered potential dropouts but manage to remain in school, were ones that had relationships with an adult at school. They said that there was someone who helped them "hold on." Caring and having a mentor allowed the students to develop a closer and more meaningful relationship with not only the teachers, but also the schools. This ultimately led to higher achievement, thus leading to greater self-esteem.

An ideal intervention program would incorporate both academics and interpersonal relationship development. This intervention concept is designed utilizing the Psychoeducational Theory or providing counseling while promoting education. Counseling would also be provided at an early age that would foster and build self-esteem within the student, thus creating a desire to remain in school. Martin, Tobin, & Sugai (2002) successful interventions would be incorporated into one program to allow the necessary flexibility to meet the needs of all students. Characteristics from each of the following programs (a) Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors (b) Personal Growth Class - School Within a School (d) Check and Connect (e) Wrap Around Interventions, and (f) the development of an Alternative Education Program would be modified in each at-risk students Individualized Education Plan.

In order to implement a program of this magnitude, additional funding would have to be allocated for support and professional staff. This would include certified paraprofessionals that would be able to assist with the record tutoring, record keeping and scheduling of activities. Professional staff would include teachers and additional counselors who would work individually with students and in group sessions. A school nurse would be available to also provide information and assistance to troubled adolescents. Needs would be identified and addressed during sessions while also building mentor relationships. Home visits would be included within the intervention program to assess and meet the needs of each student's family. While the entire school personnel would be included with professional development, additional training would be provided for faculty and staff who are the backbone of the intervention program. Members of the community would be sought for additional support. This would include law enforcement agencies to promote a safe and drug-free school environment. Clergy would be invited to participate to provide additional student/family counseling services. The health community has services that would assist the families with health concerns and with proper consent; they could also counsel the students in the area of "safe sex" issues or family planning.

The program would include an opportunity to improving relationships. Faculty and staff will reach out to students and family members to encourage parental involvement with their children's education and advisory programs where every student is well-known by at least one staff person. Respect and consideration will be taught through counseling sessions and on a daily basis. Teaching students that they are responsible for their decisions and all decisions have consequences will also be another targeted area. Participants will be taught how to be contributors to their own growth and development. Behavior support will be provided through behavior specialists and school psychologists. Professional development for all faculty and staff will be provided to address problems such as developing programs to increase attendance, decrease noncompliant behavior, and provide functional behavioral assessments and individualized positive behavior support when needed.

School personnel would provide in school opportunities for credit retrieval and tutoring services. An extended day would allow at-risk students an opportunity to have guided homework or extra help with problematic areas in the curriculum. Computer assisted instruction would be placed within the school and utilized during extended day activities. While a computer does not replace the teacher, the software provides an extended learning opportunity for the student while also entertaining or holding their attention.