Propaganda History Is a Rather

Propaganda

History is a rather difficult subject to address. It is the result of forces and beliefs, of actions and people's attitudes, of societies and their interactions. However, the element which most shaped history is the political system and politicians. They are the actual means through which the voice of the people is put into actions. At times still, the conscience of the people can be influenced in such a manner as to express more the politicians' desires rather than the reverse situation. Along the history of the 20th century in particular the main tool used to influence the democratic opinion has been propaganda. Although the term has been attributed especially in regard to the Nazi and the communist regimes, it has been used several times in different other context to express more or less the same thing, with a democratic twist however.

In order to have a comprehensive view of the meaning of propaganda in international relations it is important to take into account the actual history of the notion. Thus, it has been considered that in fact propaganda was used as a means of influencing the public opinion or the masses since the start of the century. The most important period for this notion however is indeed the period of the Nazi and communist propaganda, with all the national elements its development and assimilation entangled. Finally, from a perspective of the current events in which the world is engaged, it can easily be stated that at the moment, propaganda is widely used. Although not in the same acceptation of the terms, the United States is accused or simply viewed as one of the countries which use propaganda as a means of spreading a certain set of values in different parts of the world as well as at home. The present paper will address precisely these issues, from the start of the century up to the current situation in world affairs.

The notion of propaganda

The basic idea about propaganda is the actual consideration of the term. In this sense, it is widely believed that the instruments of this process aim at creating a certain state of mind the society can be manipulated through. Better said, "a favorable public opinion is gradually built up by propaganda of all kinds and by education. It is essentially a process of systematic indoctrination" (Hertzler, 1939). In most situations it has a negative connotation. However there are several identifiable elements which create the entire process of propaganda.

The Institute for Propaganda Analysis identified in 1938 several techniques which can be identified as being used in the process of propaganda. Thus, an important element in this sense is the "bandwagon" technique. It is not simply a tool used in propagandistic aims, but rather one which entangles different aspects as well such as advertising (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). Nonetheless, the actual meaning of this technique implies "an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. The subject is meant to believe that since so many people have joined, that victory is inevitable and defeat impossible. Since the average person always wants to be on the winning side, he or she is compelled to join in" (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). This was one of the most important aspects of the use of the propaganda. It is an appeal to the individual as part of a mass of people who is to decide on the political future of a nation, of a time of war or peace. By appealing to the psychology of the individual the mechanism of the propagandistic process tries to convince the individual and in the end the crowd.

Another major propaganda technique is "card stacking"; more precisely, "it involves only presenting information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it" (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). In the early years of political manipulation, the society was little aware of the possibility of the existence of a different and hidden aspect of a story. On the other hand, the politicians often hid the actual truth from the public either because it was an easier way of describing certain vents that were taking place or for the simple reason of influencing in a favorable way the public opinion. In any of these cases however, this was achieved through omitting the actual truth or parts of it. Although it is considered to be an immoral choice, it was seldom a reason for open revolt against the system.

The use of "glittering generalities" is yet another part of the process of propaganda. More or less, it involves the use of ideas or words which have a positive connotation for the audience. Similar to the previous technique, it uses the human psychic to influence the opinion that would be formed. It fails to present the facts as they are and is more focused on presenting the reality or parts of the reality in a language that appeal to the positive aspects of the human individual, in most cases to its values and norms.

Indeed, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis identified also as techniques of propaganda the identification of the "lesser of two evils, name calling, pinpointing the enemy, the plain folk propaganda, stereotyping, testimonials, and transfer" as techniques used in the propagandistic process (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). All these include the stimulation of the human individual to a certain degree as to form a proper and personal opinion on the events presented to him. Despite the fact that this opinion is formed under the pressure of induced beliefs or truths, people manage to actually identify themselves with the opinions formed as a result of the propagandistic process. This can very well explain the positive attitudes towards the different causes of the 20th century which used propaganda to rally support in favor of public movements, wars and peace, or even support for various social or international activities. This support comes from a self acquired conviction in the beliefs which in fact were shaped by these different propagandistic techniques.

Uses of propaganda

Although the techniques used in the propagandistic process have been used along the history in wide and varied situations, the 20th century propaganda made use of them in a concerted manner. However, it is considered that the first signs of propaganda are available in the Old Testament. In this sense, "the books of the Prophets are essentially works of propaganda. The Prophet sees that his fellow countrymen (or in the case of Jonah the citizens of a foreign country, Nineveh) are worshipping false Gods or have given themselves over to evil practices; and he calls upon them, with all the eloquence at his disposal, and with the deliberate use of threats (of the divine wrath to come) to reform and return to worship of the true God" (Fraser, 1957, 15). In this case, the Prophet made use of no actual evidence to convince the people but rather he appealed to their collective mentality. Thus, masses are easier to control than the individual. This was one of the premises for the evolution of the religious beliefs and of Christianity.

The history of propaganda however is better identified in the period of the 20th century as the collective mentality was given a much more important role. A certain consideration of the power of the public opinion was created and in this sense, the focus was no longer on the political life, but rather on the public and the possible means of influencing it.

One of the first manifestations of propaganda in the 20th century was identified in the feminist movements at the beginning of the century. More precisely the term was used "in connection with the unusual and often violent methods used by the militant suffragettes to advertise the cause of women's suffrage. Before that time, propaganda was rather a learned word and moved almost exclusively in literary circles" (Jepson, n.d.). The aim of the propaganda used at this time was to rally support for the right of women to vote. Indeed, the means used were not circumscribed to the democratic process. Nonetheless, at the time, it was more important the actual aim of the propaganda rather than the means used to achieve it. Despite the Machiavelli type concept, at the time, the passion for the beliefs supported by the feminist activists was so great that nobody actually questioned their means.

One of the most important eras in the propaganda process started however with the First World War and continued with Nazi and Soviet propaganda. The First World War was one of the least expected events in history from a certain point-of-view. It proceeded a time of rather stable economic growth. At the same time though, it was a time of great social upheaval and unrest. At this moment thus, the politicians became truly aware of the power the public opinion has over deciding on a war or not or of its capacity to influence it. In this sense, during the First World War, because of the fact that the governments of the belligerent countries had to have the public support for the waging of the war, they acted in a propagandistic manner. More precisely, "under the name of propaganda or 'public information' (...) reports of reverses were suppressed or toned down. Victories were magnified. Everything was done, directly or indirectly, to keep people at home cheerful, confident, determined, industrious and united. Doubt and criticism, however justified, were discouraged or suppressed, and even in countries with a strong democratic tradition, the Press worked loyally with the government in galvanizing the national effort, in glorifying the national cause, and in discrediting the aims and achievements of the enemy" (Jepson, n.d.). Therefore, it can be pointed out that the entire array of techniques specific for a propagandistic process was used in this sense. The limited amount of information allowed politicians to take decisions in their own name and enabled them to be protected from public scrutiny.

Throughout the First World War alliances were made and broken, agreements were reached and disregarded. This course of events would not have been possible without a public opinion which was constantly misinformed and fed with information that was far from accurate. Woodrow Wilson's request for open diplomacy came indirectly in response to the need for a wider openness towards the people. The public opinion represents one of the most efficient mechanisms of verification in politics. It can sanction politicians or elect them as their representatives. Aware of this fact, the promoters of propaganda sought to control this capacity of the public and used every means possible to create for them a different image of the surrounding reality.

The Second World War but especially the events preceding the great conflagration is an obvious proof of this fact. The Nazi propaganda and the Soviet one were two of the most important tools in preparing the world and the German and Russian peoples for war. The Nazi propaganda followed a particular course of action. This can be explained through the fact that the propagandistic mechanism was established and led by one person, Adolf Hitler. Some argue that in fact his ministers were mere lieutenants for his massive plan of increasing the support for Hitler's cause which was the reestablishment of the power of Germany in Europe and worldwide (Fraser, 1957, 53-4). More precisely, he advocated the increase need for people to support the cause of Germany, necessity for the establishment of a powerful Nazi party. Thus, he employed the bandwagon technique but in its modern acceptation. Therefore, people came to believe that without the adherence to the Nazi party, they would be left outside the system and without the possibility of engaging in the creation of greater Germany. He used maps and presentation of events that in the end proved to be misleading in order to create for the public an image that would motivate them to take a stand against the misfortunes of history and of the European countries (Herb, 1997); in this sense, he used reverse psychology which enable him to take practical and political control of the country and of the German people.