Pros and cons of cognitivist and sociocultural developmental perspectives

Second Language Acquisition

Theories of Second Language Acquisition

Several theories of second language acquisition are rooted in psychology. Two of these are the cognitivist/developmental perspective and the sociocultural perspective. Harrington explains that cognitive science seeks to understand the internal mental representations responsible for higher-order mental functions such as language acquisition (125). One of the models that falls under the cognitivist/developmental perspective is the information processing model. Lightbown and Spada liken this model to a computer (38). According to the information processing model, second language acquisition is seen as the "building up of knowledge that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding" (Lightbown and Spada 39). Lightbown and Spada explain that learners must use cognitive resources to process new information when they are trying to understand or produce a new language (39). However, just as with a computer, language learners have a limited amount of information processing capability; therefore, when they are first learning a language, they will focus their resources on learning meaning rather than grammatical structure (Lightbown and Spada 39). As learners gain experience and practice with the language, the new information becomes easier to process, and as with a computer, learners are able to access the information automatically. This frees up processing capability for learning additional aspects of the language (Lightbown and Spada 39). Lightbown and Spada add that this model is comparable to skill learning, which starts with declarative knowledge that eventually becomes procedural knowledge (39). This type of learning is typical of language learning that takes place in the classroom, in which rules are taught and then language is practiced (Lightbown and Spada 40). Through practice, according to Lightbown and Spada, declarative knowledge is replaced with procedural knowledge, and the declarative knowledge may eventually be forgotten (40).

The cognitivist/developmental perspective is relatively new in the scheme of psychological theories. However, the advantage of this perspective is that it is based on brain research and neurobiology. Advances in medical technology such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) scanning allow for inspection of the brain in ways not possible a few years ago. Lightbown and Spada explain that "such research will eventually contribute to reinterpretation of research that, until now, can only examine observable behavior" (48). However, the newness of this research is also one of the disadvantages of the cognitive perspective. Lightbown and Spada argue that this theory often involves computer simulations or laboratory experiments which may or may not be able to be generalized into actual experiences for language learners (49). Additionally, while this type of learning may work in classroom settings, it may not transfer well into real world situations. Lightbown and Spada explain that "information is best retrieved in situations that are similar to those in which it was acquired" (40). This is called transfer appropriate processing. This means that language that is learned through rules and practice might be able to be retrieved in a classroom testing situation but not as well in a real-life communication setting.

Another second language acquisition theory based on psychology is the sociocultural perspective. This perspective stresses the importance of context in language learning. According to Eun and Lim, this perspective highlights the integrated nature of the individual and social elements in the learning process (14). The sociocultural perspective is based on the work of Vygotsky who asserted that the mechanism underlying development, including linguistic development, occurs through social interaction (Eun and Lim 17). Learning occurs when "an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his or her zone of proximal development (ZPD) -- that is, in a situation in which the learner is capable of performing at a higher level because there is support from an interlocutor" (Lightbown and Spada 47). Eun and Lim add that the developmental process is always initiated between people and only gradually moves into the individual's psychological plane (17). In other words, people develop through interactions with others that are conducted primarily be means of the linguistic system. According to Eun and Lim, the two key concepts of Vygotsky's theory are mediation and meaning (15). "Mediation refers to the process by which socially meaningful activities transform impulsive, unmediated, and natural behavior into higher mental processes through the use of instruments or tools," (Eun and Lim 15). The three major categories of mediation, according to Eun and Lim, are material tools (such as picture cards), symbolic systems (such as silently rehearsing words to be remembered), and mediation through another human being (such as an adult helping a child) (15). Meaning is the second of Vygotsky's key concepts. Eun and Lim explain that humans develop the ability to acquire meaningful speech in their interactions with others (16). In fact, in the initial stages of language acquisition, people first focus on the meaning of words and only later focus on the forms. Eun and Lim assert that "mutual understanding of the meaning contained in the speech of interlocutors is what makes linguistic development possible" (17).