Prosperity in the Developing Nations

¶ … prosperity in the developing nations of Asia such as Indonesia is exacting a toll on the health of people and the environment through increased vehicular travel and concomitant increases in harmful emissions. This aim of this case study is to estimate and to quantify road traffic emissions and determine how they could have a bearing on the transportation sector in Jakarta, Indonesia. To carry out this research, it is proposed that it must follow three main steps. Firstly, to analyse the current data about characteristics of transportation such us traffic volume, average speed and proportion of vehicles in the main streets of Jakarta. Secondly, to examine these parameters within a particular air pollution model to determine the impact of the pollution this has occurred. Finally, based on the data provided, the third step is aimed at establishing any instantaneous scenario and some recommendations which could be under taken by Jakarta city government to reduce air pollution.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

Purpose of Study

Importance of Study

Overview of Study

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Chapter 3: Methodology

Description of the Study Approach

Data-gathering Method and Database of Study

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Chapter 5: Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendation for Further Research

Estimation of Road Traffic Emissions in Jakarta, Indonesia and Development of Strategies for Reducing Emissions

Chapter 1: Introduction

Urban air quality has become an increasingly important issue facing some so-called megacities in Southeast Asia, including Manila, Bangkok and Jakarta. The improvement of technology and population growth increases the number of motor vehicles and industrial estates in urban areas. Motor vehicles and industrial activity, which produces exhaust gases, is a pollutant that causes a decrease in air quality. An imperfect combustion of fuels used as energy sources for motor vehicles is introduced into the air in the form of gases and particles. Motor vehicle exhaust pollutant release (pollutants) take in the form of gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and Hydrocarbons (HC) and the form such of as dust particles, aerosols and lead. Air contaminated by these pollutants can cause disruption in the lives of humans, animals and plants.

Air pollution represents a major health hazard in a growing number of regions of the world; however, polluted air is especially problematic in some developing nations where regulations governing air quality have traditionally been lax or nonexistent (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). At present, the international healthcare community attributes a wide range of healthcare problems to suspended particulate matter, with the most damaging among being air pollutants (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). Indeed, Bolt and Dasgupta emphasize that, "Ambient concentrations of particulates in many cities of the developing world routinely exceed the World Health Organization safety standard by a factor of three or more" (2001, p. 37). These are not insignificant numbers because they translate directly into adverse healthcare outcomes in developing nations where access to healthcare services may be limited (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2009). In fact, the World Health Organization estimates that more than three million people die from the harmful effects of air pollution each year, a rate that is fully three times the number of deaths from automobile accidents each year (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2009). According to Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009), "A study published in the Lancet in 2000 concluded that air pollution in France, Austria, and Switzerland is responsible for more than 40,000 deaths annually in those three countries alone. About half of these deaths can be traced to air pollution from vehicle emissions" (2009, p. 33).

Vehicle emissions are notoriously difficult to monitor over time since their sources change, but what is known is that particulate air pollution is a combination of small and large particles that have different origins and chemical compositions (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). In recent years, the focus of health research concerning air pollution has shifted from all particles to small particles that are less than 10 microns in diameter ([PM.sub.10]) and, most recently, to particles with diameters that are less than 2.5 microns ([PM.sub.2.5]) (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). This shift is based on the preponderance of vehicular emissions that are the source of interest. In this regard, Bolt and Dasgupta report that, "Large particles usually contain dust and smoke from industrial processes, construction, agriculture, and road traffic, as well as plant pollen and other natural sources. Smaller particles generally originate from combustion of fossil fuels. These particles include soot from vehicle exhaust, which is often coated with chemical contaminants or metals, and fine sulfate and nitrate aerosols that form when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions condense in the atmosphere" (p. 38).

At present, the most significant sources of fine particles continue to be power plants that are coal-fired and internal combustion-driven motor vehicles (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). Although larger particulates would appear to be intuitively more troublesome, it is the smaller particles that are of specific interest to healthcare providers because of their ability to harm human beings when they are encountered in the environment. In this regard, Bolt and Dasgupta note that, "Small particles are more dangerous because they can penetrate deep into the lungs, settling in areas where natural clearance mechanisms, like coughing, cannot remove them. The constituent elements in small particles also tend to be more chemically active and therefore more damaging" (2001, p. 38).

The epidemiological studies to date concerning exposure to particulates, especially small particulates, have identified a significant correlation between small particulate matter, respiratory illness and death. In fact, Bolt and Dasgupta report that:

For urban residents in Latin America, some estimates suggest that particulates cause 65 million days of illness each year. A 1996 study finds that particulate pollution has inflicted serious health damage on the 4.8 million inhabitants of Santiago, Chile, a city with particularly poor air quality. Other research indicates that air pollution in Jakarta, Indonesia, is responsible for some 1,400 deaths, 49,000 emergency-room visits, and 600,000 asthma attacks per year. Health effects of exposure to particulates range in severity from coughing and bronchitis to heart disease and lung cancer. (2001, p. 38)

Jakarta as the capital city of Indonesia has encountered the same pollutions problems as other large cities. The most significant cause of air pollution in Jakarta was produced by motor vehicles which accounted for approximately 70% of emissions. This correlates directly with the ratio between the number of motor vehicles, the number of population and land area of Jakarta. Based on data from the Police Commission of Indonesia, the number of registered motor vehicles in Jakarta, in June 2009 was 9,993,867 vehicles, while the population of Jakarta in March 2009 was 8,513,385 inhabitants.

Comparison of these data showed that the number of motor vehicles in Jakarta is more than the population. Growth in the number of vehicles in Jakarta is larger than population. Growth in the number of vehicles in Jakarta is also very high, reaching 10.9% per year. These numbers are very significant because of the availability of road infrastructure in Jakarta has not complied with ideal level of provision. The length of roads in Jakarta is only about 7650 kilometres with an area of 40.1 square kilometres, or only 6.26% of the total area. In fact, the ideal ratio between the area of road infrastructure and is 14%. As these conditions worsened congestion and air pollution increased rapidly (World Bank survey, 2004). According to the World Bank, the social costs of exposure to airborne dust and lead in Jakarta approached 10% of average incomes in the early 1990s (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2003).

Moreover, although the disadvantages of automobile and truck-based transportation systems are well documented and include air pollution, suburban sprawl and traffic gridlock which are endemic to emerging countries, the overwhelming "combination of the need and the desire to drive automobiles has become so great that some cities such as Jakarta have restricting bicycle use in favor of cars and motorcycles. Jakarta even tossed 20,000 bicycle rickshaws into Jakarta Bay in the 1980s to rid the city of a 'backward technology'" (Pedal power, 2008, p. 19). In sum, Jakarta is faced with some profound challenges as it seeks to overcome the adverse effects of rapid economic growth while balancing the need to ensure that current investments in transportation infrastructure are used to their maximum advantage, and these issues are discussed further below as they relate to the problem of interest to this study.

Statement of the Problem

Studies by the World Bank indicate that air pollution in Jakarta is responsible for 1,000 to 2,000 deaths a year in each city; 25,000 to 100,000 cases of sickness requiring doctor's visits or hospitalization; and millions to hundreds of millions of "restricted activity" and "respiratory symptom" days (Brandon, 2009). Transportation issues, though, are very complex because they involve a wide range of social, economic and cultural issues and there remains a great deal of inconsistency between land use plan and transportation planning (Brandon, 2009). In addition, the growth in traffic in developing nations such as Indonesia has created traffic congestion problems that causes significantly lengthier travel times on major highways and the supporting grid. Because transportation infrastructure and services are important components of the urban system, they need to be sustainable and contribute to economic growth rather than harm the people that rely on them for their livelihoods. According to Asri and Hidayat (2005), "The expansion of social and economic activities has resulted in rising pollution and environmental degradation following the economic crisis in Jakarta Metropolitan area where environmental regulations were largely disregarded" (p. 1792). Taken together, these issues represent a growing public health threat that requires informed solutions, and these issues are discussed further below at they relate to the aims and objectives of the study.

Aims and Objectives

This research has an aim and several objectives. The aim of this research is to find out how the pollution levels occurred in several main roads in Jakarta and explore some strategies to reduce carbon pollution levels by using some schemes and scenarios. These scenarios must strive to accordance with policy, which has been undertaken by the Jakarta city government.

The objectives to be achieved by quantifying the traffic conditions related to air pollution level are:

1. The analysis of the current emission level on the main roads in Greater Jakarta.

2. The analysis of the factors that affect the air pollution on the main roads.

3. The development of "what if" scenarios to be constructed with current pollution level in Greater Jakarta for reduction of emissions.

4. To identify feasible alternatives and recommendations to reduce the air pollution level in Greater Jakarta.

Importance of Study

The importance of this study relates to both the contribution that vehicular emission are making to diminished air quality as well as the growth in demand for fossil fuels in emerging nations such as Indonesia. For instance, according to Li (2009), "Increased prosperity in the developing nations of Asia is taking a toll on the health of the people and the environment. This economic boom, however, comes at a cost, as sharply increased consumption of energy and resources have produced a major surge in pollution and inflicted significant damages on the Asian people and their environment" (p. 55). Moreover, although air pollution is a regionalized problems, it also has transnational aspects. In this regard, Li emphasizes that, "Sulfur emissions from coal combustion are transported across national boundaries. Transnational air pollution also creates international political tension as concern grows over acid deposition in the oceans and in neighboring countries" (2009, p. 55).

Structure of the Study

The research consisted of five chapters which are: introduction, literature review, methodology, result and analysis, and conclusion. The first chapter is introduction which tells about background of the study, aim and objectives, and structures oh the research. The second chapter is literature review which tells about the relationship between transportation with emissions, the case study, the previous study, the standards, forecasting procedures, transport handling facilities, and data presenting. The third chapter is methodology which tells about data collection, analysis method and methodology flow chart. The fourth chapter is result and analysis which presents the result of scenario to reduce emission on the main roads and the analysis. The last chapter is conclusion which tells about conclusion the research, limitation of the study, and recommendation for further research.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

The Relationship between Transportation and Air Pollution

There is a growing body of evidence that indicates there is no "critical threshold" that predicts safe exposure levels to particulate air pollution, but what is known is that harm increases as peoples' exposure increases, and these damages begin with very low concentration levels (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). Although environmental issues have been made priorities by many multinational organizations as well as developed and developing nations individually, the problem of air quality has become sufficiently severe that more action is needed even as further studies continue. Nevertheless, it remains unclear precisely what combination of transportation systems provide the optimal solution for reducing particulate emissions, and the research has become increasingly fine-tuned to assess NOx, SOx and other smaller particulates in recent years. In this regard, Bolt and Dasgupta report that, "As research on damage from particulate pollution has accumulated, policymakers in developing countries have begun modifying their traditional concern about diverting resources to pollution control when poverty, illiteracy, and infant mortality are still major problems. Their past hesitation has, in part, resulted from uncertainty about local pollution levels, but recently measurement of particulate pollution has become much more common" (2001, p. 38).

Industrializing nations are developing monitoring data that has provided valuable opportunities for researchers to provide much more detailed information concerning the severity and scope of particulate-based air pollution in high-density urban regions. Indeed, the data is becoming increasingly robust and new data is being added all the time, and the benchmark data contained in these repositories of data can help identify extreme situations. Using an econometric model calibrated to the latest data, a research team at the World Bank recently developed estimates of ambient [PM.sub.10] concentrations for more than 3,200 cities and incorporates a number of variables, including fuel use, population density, economic activity, and meteorological conditions (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). The results that emerged from this comprehensive model indicate that average [PM.sub.10] concentrations in East Asia (primarily China) and South Asia (primarily India) are approximately 400% higher than average concentrations in member nations of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, while average concentrations are about 200% higher in Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). These findings indicate that a majority of residents in cities in developing countries are confronted with serious particulate-based air pollution (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). This model also indicates that particulate air pollution kills about 750,000 people developing regions each year, with more than 300,000 deaths occurring in China alone (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001).

On a global level, developing regions account for over 90% of mortality, morbidity, hospital visits, and lost working days. Translating these numbers into economic losses, four developing regions have estimated annual gross domestic product reductions greater than 1.5% -- a substantial loss in countries whose annual income growth has averaged around 5% in recent years. China suffers close to half of the total damage from air pollution in developing countries (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001).

According to Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009), air pollutant constituent elements include carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. Sources for these constituent elements are from the combustion of fossil fuels in gasoline-powered automobiles and coal-fired power plants. In fact, it is not so much a matter of which source is involved, it is the cumulative effect of these sources to the overall concentrations of particulate matter that are harmful to human health. In this regard, Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009) reports that, "Nitrogen oxides can lead to the formation of ground-level ozone, among other things helping to cause smog, which is primarily composed of ozone and particulates. Particulates are emitted from a variety of sources, primarily diesel engines" (p. 35). Moreover, the high concentrations of these constituent elements in urban regions creates a long-term public health threat. Indeed, Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009) emphasizes that, "The air in most urban areas typically contains a mixture of pollutants, each of which may increase a person's vulnerability to the effects of the others. Exposure to carbon monoxide slows reflexes and causes drowsiness because carbon monoxide molecules bind to hemoglobin, reducing the amount of oxygen that red blood cells can carry" (p. 35). The nitrogen constituent is not the only element involved, of course, but it is especially noxious in its ability to produce human health problems. For instance, Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009) adds that, "Nitrogen dioxide can aggravate asthma and reduce lung function, as well as making airways more sensitive to allergens. Ozone also causes lung inflammation and reduces lung function and exercise capacity" (p. 35).

Land-use and transport systems are an important determinant of carbon dioxide emissions from urban regions. It is often asserted that urban compaction is the spatial policy best able to constrain travel and emissions, but evidence supporting this assertion is limited, particularly with respect to the combined emission from transport and land use (Namdeo, 2011). Representation of traffic flows is an essential adjunct to both urban and non-urban planning. Being important working tools for governments and consultants, traffic models have received a great deal of attention from academic and other analysts. Urban traffic models have been of greatest interest, because congestion adds to the complexity, but traffic modelling is also essential for non-urban road planning and investment (Taphlin, 2005).

Transportation plays a significant role in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, accounting for approximately a third of the United States' inventory. In order to reduce CO2 emissions in the future, transportation policy makers are looking to make vehicles more efficient and increasing the use of carbon-neutral alternative fuels. In addition, improving traffic operations, specifically through the reduction of traffic congestion, can lower CO2 emissions (Barth, 2008). Some specialists (e.g., Aditama, 1999 in Soehodho, et al., 2005) have predicted that around 60% -- 80% of urban population in around the world are living in bad air quality that is some pollutants are almost the same and over to national ambient air quality standard is in Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia (PP.RI.) Number 41-year 1999 concerning Air Pollution Control. Based on Indonesian Environmental Status Report (2002) in Soehodho, et al. (2005), most of air pollution (70%) in big cities in Indonesia comes from transportation activities, and the other 30% comes from industrial activity and human settlement.

In his book, Cities of the Hot Zone: A Southeast Asian Adventure, Sheridan provides some valuable empirical observations concerning traffic conditions in Jakarta including the adverse effects of emissions on the urban environment. According to Sheridan, "It is often best to get an appointment in Jakarta about seven in the morning, before the traffic gets too bad. The urban sprawl of Jakarta, a city of well over ten million souls. it's a surprisingly short and easy drive considering how bad the traffic can be when the mood takes it, or when it rains and the drains overflow and the streets flood" (2004, p. 239).

In their rush to join the international community in more meaningful ways, some megacities in Southeast Asia have been positively affected by the increased commerce that internationalization brings while trying to deal with the corresponding growth in fossil fuel demand and the effects of this increased demand on vehicular emissions. Indeed, Lo and Marcotullio (2001) emphasize that, "Jakarta is an example of a city that has been both positively and negatively impacted by integration into the global economic system. Jakarta, Indonesia's capital and gateway to the world, has experienced rapid economic development over the past 10 years during the economic boom in East and South-East Asia" (p. 313). On the positive side, the economic development in the major metropolitan area has extended to include the adjacent areas surrounding Jakarta, such as Bogor, Tangerang, and Bekasi (which comprise the Botabek region) (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001). According to these authorities, "Jakarta and the Botabek region, together known as Jabotabek, make up the largest metropolitan area and the most dynamic region in Indonesia. The rapid development of the Jabotabek area started at the end of the 1980s with increasing inflows of foreign direct investment and the development of large-scale industrial and housing estates" (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001, p. 313).

Consequently, the rapid pace of economic development has been matched by a corresponding growth in middle class housing tracts in suburban regions surrounding Jakarta, but further growth is constrained by the need for improved local and regional planning and development (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001). The research to date shows that:

1. Jakarta ranks third (after Mexico City and Bangkok) as the city with the worst air pollution.

2. The transportation and industrial sectors are the major contributors to air pollution.

3. The transportation sector in Jakarta contributes 40 per cent of the total SPM (suspended particulate matter), 69 per cent of the NOx (nitrogen oxide), and 15 per cent of the SOx (sulphur oxide).

4. DKI Jakarta has 3,021,138 vehicles, the pollutant level reaches approximately 232.3 tonnes per day.

5. Hhealth bills reach almost Rp 1.3 billion per day.

6. Health costs alone, however, are not sufficient in accounting for the impact of air pollution. The degradation of air quality also affects the condition of buildings, pollutes vegetation, corrodes infrastructure, and impacts on levels of greenhouse gases (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001, p. 353).

The largest sources of air pollution in the greater Jakarta metropolitan area are vehicle emissions and then industrial emissions (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001). More importantly, absent the interventions needed to address these problems today, the amount of vehicular emissions will continue to increase in the future (Lo & Marcotullio, 2001). According to Lo and Marcotullio, "The level of air pollutants in Jakarta's artery roads has far exceeded the maximum threshold according to the Indonesian State Ministry of Environment Act. For example, on Jalan M.H. Thamrin, one of the major roads in Jakarta, the proportion of NOx reached 40.6 per cent, which is three times the maximum threshold" (p. 353). On a positive note, a number of indicators of air quality within Jakarta's residential neighbourhoods have remained below standard harmful levels, but there are still problems concerning particle parameter measures including small particulates such as dust, mist, fumes, and total suspended particulates. According to Lo and Marcotullio (2001), "In these cases the amount of pollutants exceeds health thresholds by 2.4 per cent to 45.5 per cent. This indicates that the health consequences of air pollution, such as TSP mortality, asthma, increased blood pressure, decreases in children's IQ, and bronchitis in children, will be greater, and will increase the health costs further" (p. 353).

The major sources of air pollution in Jakarta are set forth in Table 1 below and depicted graphically in Figure __ below.

Table

Sources of air pollution in Jakarta

Sources

SOx %

NOx %

SPM %

Factories

76

26

57

Automobiles

15

69

40

Households

8

3

3

Ships

1

1

0

Aircraft

0

1

0

Total

Source: Lo & Marcotullio, 2001, p. 352

Figure __. Sources of air pollution in Jakarta

Source: Based on tabular data in Lo & Marcotullio, 2001, at p. 352

In sum, air pollution in Jakarta is caused primarily by vehicle emissions and these emissions have become an increasingly serious public health threat (Dick, Houben, Lindblad & Wie, 2002, p. 231; Peirce, 2009).

The Case Study

This case study is originally adopted from the air pollutions modelling and monitoring system which is compulsorily undertaken in every city in the UK. However, this study focuses on estimating the emissions that occur by taking sample measurements in the main roads of Greater Jakarta, Indonesia. The study will be focused on estimating carbon emissions and implementing some scenarios, which are can reduce emissions on the main roads.

Estimation of emissions will count with the equation in Equation 2.1 the relation between Emissions with Traffic Volume

Q = n x FE x K

Which are:

Q is total emissions in g/hour.km n is number of vehicle in units/hour

FE is factor emissions in (g/litre)

K is fuel consumption in litres / 100 km

Number of vehicle will take from the Local Department of Transportation. Number of vehicle must represent the fact. So, the data should be a reliable thing. Factor emissions should look in Table 2.1 . K value concerning fuel consumption should look in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1 Emissions Factor for any kind of Vehicles

No.

Kind of Vehicle

Emissions Factor (FE) -- g/litre

NOx

NMVOC

CO

N2O

CO2

1

Passenger car

- premium

21,35

0,71

53,38

462,63

0,04

2597,86

- solar

11,86

0,08

2,77

11,86

0,16

2924,90

2

Light vehicle

- premium

24,91

0,71

49,82

295,37

0,04

2597,86

- solar

15,81

0,04

3,95

15,81

0,16

2924,90

3

Heavy vehicle

- premium

32,03

0,71

28,47

281,14

0,04

2597,86

- solar

39,53

0,24

7,91

35,57

0,12

2924,90

4

Motorcycle

7,12

3,56

85,41

427,05

0,04

2597,86

Source: IPPC (1996) in Jinca et al. (2009)

Table 2.1 is shown emissions factor based on the previous research at 1996. The table is used in the Equation 2.1. Table 2.2 is shown factor of energy consuming for any kind of vehicles. The table is used the Equation 2.1. Therefore, both of them had much kind of vehicles, researcher will take a highest value each kind of vehicles.

Table 2.2 Energy Consuming for any kind of Vehicles

No.

Kind of Vehicle

Fuel Consuming

(liters/100 km)

1

Passenger car

- premium

11,79

- solar

11,36

2

Heavy bus

- premium

23,15

- solar

16,89

3

Medium bus

13,04

4

Light bus

- premium

11,35

- solar

11,83

5

Bemo, Bajaj

10,99

6

Taxi

- premium

10,88

- solar

6,25

7

Heavy Truck

15,82

8

Medium Truck

15,15

9

Light Truk

8,11

- premium

8,11

- solar

10,64

10

Motorcycle

2,66

Source: BPPT in Jinca et al. (2009)

The Previous Study

Novianti et al., (2009) wrote the result of their research called "the influence of factor emissions characteristics in Transport -- Included nitrogen dioxide (NOx), emissions load estimation, case study: Karees Aeera, Bandung." Emission inventory can be used as a tool to make policy decision including air pollution problem. Transportation sector has become the greatest pollutant source in urban area. The objective of this research is to compare emission load estimation using various emission factor databases with different characteristics. This research focused only on Nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollutant. The choice of pollutant is based on the reasons that it is the primary pollutant emitted from vehicle exhaust; the impacts on human health and the environment are well documented. First, transportation survey was conducted to get vehicles activity data such as volume with 7 vehicles classification and vehicles average speed. The survey was conducted at weekday and weekend condition. Then, Indonesia, UK, and India factor emission database was chosen for determining emission load. Based on the transportation survey conducted and emission load calculation, it was known that the busiest road was Jalan Jakarta and was known to emit the highest emission load. England emission factor database deemed to be probably the best emission factor because emission factor database which is more detail and is incompliance with needs and site conditions, of course, will give a better emission load value.

Mitchell et al. (unknown) wrote the result of their research called "the impact of road price and other strategic road transport initiatives on urban air quality." The UK National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) recognizes road transport as a principal source of urban atmospheric pollution; hence an objective of the 1999 Transport White Paper was to reduce air pollution through better management of urban road traffic. Whilst there are numerous policy options available for managing urban traffic their air quality implications at the city scale are largely unknown. This research presents preliminary results from the application of a chain of dynamic simulation models of traffic flow (SATURN, SATTAX), pollutant emission (ROADFAC) and dispersion (ADMS-Urban), integrated within a geographic information system model (TEMMS) to assess the impact of alternative transport scenarios on air quality for the city of Leeds, UK.

The scenarios addressed include "business as usual" traffic growth to 2015; network development; road pricing with cordon charging; road pricing with distance charging; and the wider adoption of clean fuel vehicle technology. The impact of these developments on air quality (nitrogen dioxide, particulates and sulphur dioxide), including exceedances of air quality standards is identified.

Finally, differences in the spatial distribution of air quality (as NO2) between scenarios are highlighted, in light of their significance to social equity concerns. Emission Standards on the Road.

Greater Jakarta had several regulations about emissions, which are:

1. Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 41-year 1999 concerning Air Pollution Control.

2. Local Government Regulation of DKI Jakarta Number 2-year 2005 concerning Air Pollution Control.

3. Ministry of Environment Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 12-year 2010 concerning Application of Air Pollution Control at the Local State.

The last regulation had any indicators to measure emission level. The indicators are:

particulate matter (PM), trioxygen (O3), nitrogen dioxide (No2), sulphur dioxide (So2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and Pb. The indicators based on 3 standards which are:

1. The WHO Air Quality Guideline.

2. National Ambient Air Quality Standards -- USEPA.

4. BMUA (baku mutu udara ambient) Nasional - Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 41-year 1999 concerning Air Pollution Control.

Greater Jakarta does not have BMUA (Baku Mutu Udara Ambient) so Greater Jakarta follows BMUA Nasional which is release by Ministry of Environmental Republic of Indonesia. Table 2.3 is shown the value of emissions indicators based on observation duration.

Table 2.3 Value of Emissions Indicators

No.

Indicators

Duration

Value

Units

WHO

USEPA

BMUA

1

Particular Matter (PM)2,5

24 hours

25

35

65

ug/Nm3

1-year

10

15

15

ug/Nm3

2

Particular Matter (PM)10

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours

50

ug/Nm3

1-year

20

ug/Nm3

3

Trioxgen (O3)

1-hour ug/Nm3

8 hours ug/Nm3

1-year

50

ug/Nm3

4

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours ug/Nm3

1-year

40

ug/Nm3

5

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

10 minutes ug/Nm3

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours

20

ug/Nm3

1-year

80

60

ug/Nm3

6

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

1-hour

40000

30000

ug/Nm3

8 hours

10000

ug/Nm3

24 hours

10000

ug/Nm3

7

Pb

24 hours

2

ug/Nm3

4 months

1.5

ug/Nm3

1-year

1

ug/Nm3

Source: Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup (2010)

The standards will be the objectives which are the indicators to know deficiency level between the fact (existing condition) with condition after treatment (with scenarios).

Transportation

Emissions reduction can start with transport handling, especially solve to congestion in Greater Jakarta. Transportation sector had many subsectors which are:

1. Transport facilities

2. Traffic movement

3. Transport operations and management

Transport facilities tell about facilities on the road which is regulating the traffic movement on the road. The congestion makes the emissions level high. So, the good planning of transport facilities will reduce the congestion level. Reduction of the congestion level will reduce the emissions level.

The traffic movement can change the mapping of emissions level on the main road. but, this research does not change the traffic movement because the change of traffic movement needs data of trip generation and data of trip distribution. This research does not have any data of trip generation and data of trip distribution. So, researcher cannot change the traffic movement.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The research will be following this flow chart. The flow chart is a guidance to make this research step-by-step. The first step is data collecting. Data collecting is a process will be collecting the data. The second step is analysis. Analysis is a process will be analyzing about the existing conditions. The third step is a process to compare between standard/objective with the existing conditions. The result of analysis is the emissions level on the main roads. If the result has a deficiency between the standards or objectives, the process will be next to the fourth. If the result has not a deficiency between the standards or objectives, the process will be next to the fifth.