Social constructionism in psychology

¶ … psychology a science and, if so, what kind of science it is, and should it be identified as social constructionist? Since psychologists are those who use the term "social constructionism" the most (almost exclusively it seems), it simply makes sense that psychology can be defined and identified with the term. Several characteristics embody social constructionism, and psychology meets most of these characteristics, as this paper will show. Therefore, psychology should be regarded as a social science, and should be identified with social constructionism.

The characteristics of social constructionism clearly apply to psychology. While the characteristics can be broad, taken together, they paint a compelling portrait of psychology and psychologists today, and help define and unify the psychological field. Author Vivian Burr asserts the characteristics of social constructionism include a critical look at "taken for granted" knowledge, and to be suspicious of assumptions (Burr, 2003, p. 2-3). She continues, "It [social constructionism] is therefore in opposition to what is referred to as positivism and empiricism in traditional science -- the assumptions that the nature of the world can be revealed by observation, and that what exists is what we perceive to exist" (Burr, 2003, p. 3). Thus, psychology is not a traditional science, based on what is real or perceived real, but is instead a social science, based on knowledge rather than assumptions, and new knowledge rather than accepted and "taken for granted" knowledge.

In fact, social constructionism urges people to question the labels and assumptions made about just about anything, from gender to physical characteristics, and question everything about what one thinks one knows. Thus, it opens up new areas for discussion, research, and knowledge. In essence, social constructionism as it pertains to psychology opens up new areas of awareness, and urges the psychologist to recognize the great importance of social factors in the development of the personality. Social constructionism understands the importance of society, environment, and other factors, rather than simply relying on biological and internal factors that affect the personality and mind (Burr, 2003, p. 6). In fact, this form of "social psychology" is becoming increasingly popular and understood by the psychological community. Another writer notes, "Experimental social psychology, like social constructionism, concerns the ways that people construct meaning from their social worlds and is thus well suited to examining how people make sense of research findings" (Hegarty & Pratto, 2004). Thus, social constructionism, while removed from scientific research, by removing the traditional thought patterns and preconceived notions regarding scientific discovery, actually may make it easer to "make sense of research findings."

Language is an important aspect of the social constructionist theory. Two theorists write, "Language provides the basis on which we make sense of the world. Language provides us with the categories, or typifications, that we use to classify events and persons and to order them. Language provides the means by which we interpret new experience" (Delamater & Hyde, 1998). Language differs greatly from country to country, and even from person to person, and language, even dialect can affect our personalities. For example, many people perceive southern U.S. dialects as "ignorant" or "backwoods," while others see them as quaint or colloquial. A person's personality can be altered by this perception, especially if it is repeatedly expressed or implied. Someone who is sensitive regarding their education and background may attempt to alter their speech and remove some of the accent, in effect altering their personality to conform to social norms or accepted practice, and this indicates how society can alter, sway, or influence personality and the psyche.

Perception vs. reality is an important, even vital concept to understanding social constructionism. A professional counselor writes, "Upon reflection, as humans, we can see how social meaning definitions pervade our lives. Wearing a tie to indicate formal dress, viewing a skull on a bottle as a sign of poison, and using particular rituals during worship are all examples of our regular participation in socially constructed realities" (Hansen, 2004). Every day, the average American is literally bombarded with messages such as these. While Freud's theories of the mind and the biological, inherent basics of personality certainly applies to modern psychology, in today's complex world the outside influences can be just as important, or even more important than the internal forces at work on personality and the psyche. Social constructionism recognizes this, and psychologists who use this theory may be even more successful with their patients than those who rely on methods that are more archaic. In addition, social constructionism is making its way into other psychological venues, such as counseling, as an accepted means of treatment and patient understanding. As one counselor notes, "Clients tell stories about their lives, and counselors assist clients in 'renarrating' these stories for the purposes of healing. Thus, counseling involves the 'creation of conversational opportunities' from which new meaning structures emerge" (Hansen, 2004). Many experts feel social constructionism and counseling go hand-in-hand, and it is one of the most important tools counselors can use to understand the needs and personalities of their clients.

Another important aspect of social constructionism as it relates to psychology is objectivity, or more importantly, the lack of objectivity. Social constructionists believe it is impossible for anyone to be entirely objective, because each of us; psychologists, patients, and others, brings certain assumptions to decisions and positions regarding disease, treatment, and cure. Author Burr continues, "No human being can step outside of their humanity and view the world from no position at all, which is what the idea of objectivity suggests, and this is just as true of scientists as of everyone else" (Burr, 2003, p. 152). Thus, social constructionism recognizes total objectivity is impossible, while also recognizing the importance of perception and society on the overall personality of the individual and the society.

Psychologist and philosopher Hjalmar Sunden is perhaps the "father" of modern social constructionist thought. A biographer of Sunden writes, "To him the human self, also in its religious aspects, is a social self. This truism, which seems to have been forgotten by large segments of 20th-century psychology [...] has come to be known as social constructionism" (Belzen, 1996, p. 182). While Sunden's studies and theories revolved around religion, he used psychology to explain and underline his theories, which evolved essentially into the "role-taking theory." In developing this theory, he developed the seed of social constructionism, "that every perception is determined by the results of social learning. In order to be able to see something through a microscope, you must have learned a great deal, you must be acquainted with theory and know what to look for" (Belzen, 1996, p. 184). This philosophy was radical at first, but as more studied the field, more psychologists and other social scientists began to agree and espouse Sunden's theories.

However, modern social constructionism was defined by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann in a 1966 book called The Social Construction of Reality. Another famous philosopher involved in the social constructionist theory is Antonio Gramsci, a contemporary of Karl Marx who extensively studied culture and leadership topics. "What Gramsci addresses indirectly is the twentieth-century battle between positivists and critical theorists, between science and social science, between value-ladenness and value neutrality on the issue of methodology and methods" (Holub, 1992, p. 77). His beliefs now manifest themselves in the social constructionism, and many other psychologists and philosophers have come to believe his (and others) assumptions apply directly to the social science of psychology.