Types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is the process of linking an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. The famous classical conditioning experiment by Pavlov resulted in a dog beginning to salivate whenever a bell was rung. This was achieved by ringing the bell every time food was brought for the dog, thus the dog was conditioned to associate the sound of the bell with food. Since food naturally elicits salivation in a hungry animal, this is the unconditioned stimulus. By comparison, the sound of a bell does not normally elicit salivation; therefore the bell is the conditioned stimulus.

Examples of classical conditioning are most easily observed around children. The first time a child is given a chocolate chip cookie, they may not salivate. Instead, due to a lack of experience the child may cautiously chew a tiny piece to test whether they like it or not. If they do, and I've never met a child who doesn't like chocolate chip cookies, then they may be conditioned to associate unrelated stimuli with the promise of a chocolate chip cookie. The smell of cookies in the oven might cause the kitchen to be invaded by a hungry mob of children demanding to know when the batch will be finished. These children will likely be salivating and claiming to be desperately hungry. If a child has experienced Oreo cookies and a cold glass of milk, they may begin to salivate as soon as they see and hear an Oreo cookie package being opened.

Another classical conditioning example is yawning at the conclusion of an evening movie at home. Yawning is generally assumed to be triggered by the brain's need for more oxygen and this occurs most often during the late evening as arousal declines in preparation for sleep. For evening movie addicts, the end of a movie elicits yawning because they have been conditioned to associate ending credits with a reduced state of arousal. The unconditioned stimulus is a reduced state of arousal in preparation for sleep and the conditioned stimulus is the movie's ending credits.

Operant Conditioning

In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning is the process of associating voluntary behavior with defined outcomes. A rat can be taught to navigate a maze by rewarding correct turns with pieces of cheese. This process is called positive reinforcement and the cheese the reinforcing stimulus. With enough time, a rat can be taught to make all the correct turns with a single reward at the maze exit. In contrast, the process of negative reinforcement involves encouraging a behavior through removal of an unpleasant stimulus, which might be silencing an unpleasant sound if the rat makes the correct turn in the maze. Positive punishment is the process of discouraging behavior by rewarding it with an aversive stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves removing something pleasant as punishment.

The taste of a warm chocolate cookie fresh from the oven, together with an ice-cold glass of milk, is a very powerful positive reinforcement for cookie-seeking behavior at any age. However, if running into a kitchen with a hot oven full of baking cookies is considered unsafe behavior, then this could be discouraged through negative punishment. The negative punishment imposed in this case might be no cookies and milk.

An example of negative reinforcement would be a professor stating that a final examination would not be required for any student who is able to get an A on all quizzes and tests during the semester. Such a strategy would be designed to encourage student participation and exceptional performance during the semester, by removing the negative stimulus of a required final exam. Improved student performance might also be elicited through positive punishment. For example, if the professor were to call students to the front of the classroom to collect their most recent test or quiz and then announce the grade, poor performing students might feel embarrassed enough to try harder to get a good grade. In this case, the punishment is public embarrassment. Personally, I would prefer the negative reinforcement approach.

Observational Learning

Observational learning, otherwise known as social learning theory, is the process of learning by observing the behaviors of others. In contrast to operant conditioning, reinforcement and punishment occurs vicariously. Examples of vicarious reinforcement can include the stature, reputation, appearance, and talents of the person being observed (model), if such qualities are attractive to the observer. In most circumstances, the observer may acquire a behavior through observation and then perform it later. By comparison, vicarious punishment could be anything unattractive about the model or watching them fail. In this case, the observer eliminates the behavior from their own repertoire, thus ensuring that it will not be performed.