Social and Behavioral Aspects of Public Health

1. The relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health is one of the most robust in the public health literature. Whereas high SES is almost invariably linked to lower morbidity and mortality, low SES is associated with higher morbidity and mortality. What theories, variables, and processes help to explain this inverse relationship between SES and health outcomes?

Money may not buy happiness, but it does buy better health and therefore longer life. The multiple variables that are involved in this calculus include the fact that affluent people can afford healthier foods, visit health care providers for preventive checkups as well as whenever ill health requires it, enjoy a less stress- and depression-filled lifestyle due to fewer worries over money, and actively participate in those activities that provide humans with physical fitness and joy. This is not to say, of course, that less affluent people never experience joy or a decent meal, but it is to say that poor people might avoid visiting a health care provider or purchasing needed medicine due to a lack of funds, or go without meals so that their children can have enough to eat.

A growing body of scholarship confirms the positive relationship between higher SES levels and better health and longevity. For example, a seminal study by Prus (2004) used divergence theory to test the hypothesis that higher SES levels serve to reduce morbidity and mortality rates over the lifespan. The key finding that emerged from this study was that, While adults from all socio-economic status (SES) levels generally encounter a decline in health as they grow older, research shows that health status is tied to SES at all stages of life (Prus, 2004, p. 145).

Furthermore, the strength of this positive relationship tends to increase as affluent people grow older. For instance, Prus (2004) also notes that, Multiple linear regression analyses show support for this assumption; that is, the relationship between SES (measured by years of education and annual household income) and health (measured by self-rated and functional health indexes) strengthens with age (p. 145). These findings indicate the reverse is also true: lower SES levels adversely affect morbidity and mortality rates over the lifespan and this effect intensifies with age as they grow older and vulnerable to age-related disorders.

An interesting finding by Rarick et al. (2016), though, was that the subjective perception of affluence can also have an effect on morbidity and mortality rates. In other words, individuals views about their own SES in relation to others has many of the same effects as clear-cut differences in income levels. This is an especially noteworthy finding since, ceteris paribus, the subjects income levels did not allow them to receive any additional or better health care, diet or lifestyle and the subjective perception of being affluent was the only operative variable. This finding suggests that, irrespective of reality, people who believe they are well off financially may enjoy more stress-free lives which contributes to their improved health and longevity (Rarick et al., 2016).

The subjective sense of life satisfactions effect on health and longevity that was tested by Rarick et al. (2016) was also the focus of a study by Moreno-Agostino et al. (2021). The findings that emerged from this study were also noteworthy since they shed some light on how subjectivity concerning SES status affects health and lifespan. For example, Moreno-Agostino et al. (2021) point out that, One of the predictors of life satisfaction in older adulthood is SES. While some SES indicators (e.g., education) may reflect socioeconomic experiences in earlier life stages, others (e.g., income) represent current socioeconomic conditions that are more susceptible to change with age (p. 585). Although research has shown that the relationship between actual SES levels and health strengthens with age, the reverse is true of the subjective perception of SES and corresponding life satisfaction levels. In this regard, Moreno-Agostino et al. (2021) conclude that, Life satisfaction (i.e., evaluative wellbeing) has shown a particularly strong association with health [but] life satisfaction exhibits a declining pattern with age in most countries worldwide (p. 585).

2. Discuss briefly the differences in rates of mental illness by race, SES, and gender. How might the concept of stress help us to better understand these observed differences?

Although everyones response...…(2022) note that according to the health belief model, A persons behavior changes when he understands the level of danger that threatens him (perceived sensitivity and severity) and also has a proper assessment of health barriers and behaviors (perceived barriers and benefits) (Moradi et al., 2022, p. 2). These attributes indicate that the health belief model can be used appropriately for public health interventions of various types.

In contrast to the health belief model, the theory of reasoned action/theory of planned behavior holds that it is possible to predict with some degree of accuracy peoples intention to participate in different types of behaviors at specific times and places (The theory of planned behavior, 2022). In fact, the theory of reasoned action was deeloped in an effort to provide an explanation for all types of behaviors that people possess the ability to voluntarily engage in or not. The theory of planned behavior uses six constructs which are intended to reflect the level of control that people are ability to exert on their behaviors as follows:

1. Attitudes: This construct refers to whether the individual possesses a negative or positive view of a given behavior.

2. Behavioral intention: This construct refers to which motivational factors serve to affect the decision to engage in a behavior; stronger intentions translate into greater likelihood of engaging in the behavior.

3. Subjective norms: This construct refers to individuals view concerning the cultural acceptability of engaging in a given behavior.

4. Social norms: Similar to subjective norms, this construct refers to social conventions and mores that prescribe acceptable types of behavior.

5. Perceived power: This construct refers to the extent to which people regard the presence or absence of those factors that could encourage or discourage engaging in a given behavior.

6. Perceived behavioral control: Finally, this construct refers to the difficult or ease with which individuals engage in a given behavior (The theory of planned behavior, 2022)

Taken together and given its main focus on educating people concerning the harmful implications of poor lifestyle choices, the health belief model provides a better framework for implementing interventions that are designed to decrease diabetes in the African American community through public…