Qing Dynasty, Which Lasted From

Qing Dynasty, which lasted from 1644 to 1911, was also known as Ch'ing or Manchu. During this historical period, imperial China reached its zenith of power and influence, extending China's borders farther than they had ever been before and perfecting the Chinese imperial system. In fact, the Qing empire appeared so well-structured and economically flourishing in the 18th century, that the French philosopher Voltaire praised the country's leaders for having the most effectively organized government in the entire world. In addition, European leaders admired the powerful and learned Qing rulers as "enlightened despots" and advised their own kings to copy Chinese methods of government (Encarta). However, as in the case as all empires in the past, the Qing Dynasty and its glory days also came to an end. After being more than prosperous for 300 years, it fell apart in the 19th century, by growing weak and inflexible. It could no longer adapt as new external challenges and problems arose. Bad harvests, warfare, rebellions, overpopulation, economic disasters, and foreign imperialism contributed to the dynasty's collapse. Most of all, it was caused by a combination of factors including military deterioration and internal rebellions, the White Lotus Rebellion and early Western contact.

By 1800, there were already signs of decline in the Qing Dynasty, including military ineffectiveness of the leading forces, corruption of the top bureaucracy and difficulties of livelihood among the ever-growing population (Fairbank and Reischauer). The banner forces, which had controlled the East Asian continent for nearly two centuries and had won so many battles in the past, were losing their strength and were now become increasingly ill-supplied, poorly trained and demoralized. Officers and troops, who were on stipends, were being pressured by rising costs, and impoverished soldiers, who tried to live on rice stipends in their garrisons, were now being forced to become artisans, low-level traders or criminals to make a living.

The forces' deterioration was furthered by the uprising called the White Lotus Rebellion from 1796 to 1804, against the Manchu leaders of the Qing Dynasty. Poor settlers in the mountainous region dividing Sichuan province from Hubei and Shaanxi provinces began to rebel, because of a tax protest. The rebellion was led by the White Lotus Society, a secret religious group that foresaw the growth of Buddhism, supported restoration of the native Chinese Ming dynasty, and pledged personal salvation to its followers. At first the Qing administration sent its poorly trained and ineffectual forces to fight these ill-organized rebels. In 1799, however, Emperor Chia Ch'ing used more force and overthrew these rebels and restored discipline and morale (Roberts).

Peace once again was restored as these freedom fighters were put down. The unstable populace was transported into hundreds of enclosed villages and organized into militia. In addition, the Qing containment policy combined detection and death of rebel guerrilla bands and an amnesty program for deserters. Although the Manchu finally crushed the rebellion in 1804, the damage was done. The credibility that had been built up for so many generations was coming to an end (Roberts).

With the White Lotus Rebellion, the myth of an invincible military was destroyed, which contributed to the greatest frequency of rebellions in the 19th century. Also, with all the Chinese defeats in wars, more and more people began to lose their faith in the Qing government and started to join the revolutionary movement. They felt that the only solution to strengthen China was to overthrow the Qing Empire. This sectarianism in the White Lotus rebellions appealed to women and the poor, who found consolation in worshiping the Eternal Mother, who would be gathering all her children into one family with the coming of the new millennium. The Qing state banned the religion, but its message still urged on spectacular rebellions (Roberts).

There are a number of reasons given for this chronic rebellion, one in particular by Elizabeth Perry. She theorized that the growth of bandit revolutionary groups was a logical progression of ongoing modes of resource competition that were being shaped by the natural and social composition of the area. Although the redirection of violence into rebellion against the state necessitated the intervention of precipitating historical events, the preconditions of recurring rebellion can be sought in longer lasting adaptive processes. Naturally, she added, the style of adaptation itself underwent changes over time, as new circumstances and past experiences altered the forms of human activity. Nevertheless, as long as society proved unable to shackle the forces of nature, an essential continuity prevailed. Once the rebellions started, the Qing government had greater difficulty to successfully carry out its intended reforms, which caused more hardship to the Chinese people. This motivated even more people to enter the revolutions. (Major).

Yet it was the arrival of the Western countries and modernization in China that brought the most changes and final destruction of the Qing Dynasty. For numerous years, the Qing Empire did all it could to protect itself not only from internal revolutions but also from foreign invasions. The Qing became the first dynasty to eliminate successfully all danger to China from across its land borders. Under Manchu leadership, the nation expanded to include the largest area from before or ever since. In addition, Qing emperors received tribute from the various border states (Gernet).

Now that the Qing reforms were no longer working, however, the Chinese people were open to western ideas. Before the reform movements, China was not a modern country compared to most others, and the majority of people practiced antiquated policies. This started to change across the country. At first the modernization of China was very limited. Yet, at the same time, a number of forward-looking Chinese officials recognized that the country would have to adjust to the rapidly changing modern world. Their slogan became "Enrich the state, strengthen the military," and they demonstrated what China had to do in order to survive -- it was necessary to end isolation and self-sufficiency (Gernet).