Globalization and Human Rights Human Rights Issues

Globalization and Human Rights

Human Rights Issues and Globalization

Overview of Human Rights

Overview of Globalization

Implications of Globalization on Human Rights

Human Rights for Future Generations

Overpopulation

Climate Change

It was argued long ago by Greek historian Herodotus that there are no universal ethics (Ishay, 2008). The historian argued that different cultures had different perceptions about what is acceptable behavior and what rights people should be granted. Herodotus illustrates this argument by comparing burial rituals that were used by two different cultures. One culture believed that cremation was appropriate based on their beliefs while the other involved some form of cannibalism in their rituals to preserve the souls of the fallen. The historian approached individuals from the first culture asking them if they would consider eating their following family members and they responded with disgust. He then asked the individuals from the more primitive culture whether they would consider burning their deceased and they also responded with disgust. Herodotus was thus convinced that ethics were relative in nature and based on the cultural beliefs that a society possessed.

The study and understanding of ethics have been through a thorough process of evolution since there origin. As an offshoot of this evolution a subsidiary division of ethical analysis is the formation of human rights. Human rights are roughly defined to be the most basic and fundamental rights that should be provided to individuals a crossed the globe simply because of the fact that they belong to the human species. This basically represents the floor or lowest level of ethical ideas that should be applied to all humans no matter the circumstance. Although this represents a concept that many people and nations fully support, there lacks a consensus or any form of standardization of exactly what these rights entail and are definitely open the interpretation. However, with the world continuously moving in the direction of forming more of a global village through the effects of globalization of economic and social systems, the idealized concept of human rights may have a significantly enhanced opportunity to become more salient and tangible. This paper will evaluate the effects of globalization along with the challenges and opportunities its presents for the human rights movement.

Overview of Human Rights

Human rights are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being (Sepulveda, et al., 2004). By inalienable it considered to be nondiscriminatory in the sense that any human must be granted these rights despite race, religious affiliation, ideology, or any other group which people can be placed into. Human rights also do not make any provisions for the denial of these rights based on behavioral issues such as whether or not the person could be considered a criminal or emotionally or psychological disturbed. Therefore if a person ascribes to the concept of human rights then they are in agreement that they are to apply these rights to all people without regard to any other consideration. The very fact that an individual is a human being automatically entitles them to at least there basic human rights.

What constitutes a human right is somewhat less certain than to whom they should be applied to. There have been many centuries of political and philosophical debate in regard to what rights an individual is born with. For example, the United States' constitution states that individuals are born with life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness which were considered to be self-evident. Despite so many similar claims that are found in a multitude of various constitutions worldwide, the statements of such only represent one stage in the development of human rights. For example, though the claim that individuals are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are also based on centuries of philosophical debate and mark a significant step toward creating a civil society, the notions of such terms as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are rather vague and subjective concepts. Therefore these terms represent a substantial development in regards to the evolution of human rights yet they, by themselves, only represent abstractions that have a limited amount of pragmatic value.

The next evolutionary milestone in the development of a more specific set of human rights was undoubtedly the Declaration of Human Rights which was constructed by the United Nations in 1948 after World War II (Kunz, 1949). There are two important aspects inherent in this approach that separates human rights from earlier attempts at establishing a set of rights for humankind. The first aspect is that the Declaration of Human Rights is more specific than other attempts at such a social agreement. The next unique feature of this agreement is that entails an international scope that includes a plethora of participants. Although the nature of the United Nations Declarations of Human Rights (UDHR) does not represent a legally binding document in which the United Nations can take action against any human rights violators, it does hold significance as a standard that many nations aspire to.

There are two main categories of human rights included in the UDHR (United Nations, 2012). The first category is composed of civil and political rights. These rights are included in articles three to twenty one in the declaration and cover items such as freedom from slavery, right to a fair trial, freedom of speech, and freedom of thought, conscience and religion. The next sets of human rights included in the second category are composed of economic, social, and cultural rights. This include such items as the right to work, the right to have leisure and holiday time, the right to an education, and the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community. Although there are many critics to the inclusion of the two separate categories of rights, the idea centers around the fact that to have a fulfilled and purposeful life then both categories of rights are required.

Overview of Globalization

Globalization has become a ubiquitously used word in the last few decades. Much of this trend is centered on international trade, multinational corporations, and the technologically driven increases in access to people and markets. As a result of globalization, many multi-national corporations (MNCs) have helped to spur a level of homogenization throughout there international partners and foreign operations. When an international company expands into a new market then there is also a mix of cultures that occurs in the organization. Therefore, even though the trend has been primarily focused around business activities it also has had many other ramifications as well in regards to social and political norms.

The globalization trend has worked to create a single global market is resulting in many international markets having to adapt their own individual business operational preferences in favor of more global practices that can transcend cultural differences. It is often the case that the revised business practices which have resulted from globalization are more efficient. They result in international business processes which better suited to a global marketplace. Such efficiencies can be gained through technological developments, such as the implementation of advanced software packages that can effectively monitor business functions throughout the world. Other processes such as staffing and human resources training programs can also benefit from standardization through the implementation of the global set of best practices in many cases. However, many problems can emerge that serve as obstacles to globalized standardization that prevent such systems from being effective in practice.

Much research has been conducted in order to try to understand the factors that surround business process redesign in regards to cultural preferences because it often represents a critical success factor for international businesses. One such example that affects an ability to compete in the international arena is how well knowledge transfers in an organization across international borders. International organizations that can transfer knowledge more efficiently a crossed borders are more likely to be profitable than those who have poorer knowledge transfer capabilities are at a disadvantage in globalized markets. One study has identified that the absorptive capacity of knowledge transfer is correlated with the employees' abilities and willingness to learn in these situations (Minbaeva, et al., 2003).

Such evidence would suggest that the organizational culture of the subsidiary should be an important consideration for international expansions that occur through acquisitions. It is reasonable to suspect that this is one of the more important factors that are often overlooked. However, employee skill sets are relatively easier to control than the broader organizational culture as employees can be replaced or trained if their skills are not suited for their responsibilities. Yet the organizational culture development in organizations often takes on a life of its own and is less controllable. Furthermore, the culture within the subsidiary can dictate whether or not international standardization is possible.

Knowledge transfer isn't necessarily limited to a transfer from the parent company to the international subsidiary. Business knowledge can also pass from the subsidiary to the parent company. In this sense the effects of globalization in business works in both directions. Subsidiary organizations can potentially operate with more efficient processes than the parent company. If management identifies this occurrence and works to transfer this knowledge back to the parent company then this can create a competitive advantage and be implemented in global operations. In this sense the globalization of international markets evolved on its own rather than being dictated by any one country or organization. One research study examines this practice among various American and European MNCs that had subsidiary operations in Japan (Simonin & Ozsomer, 2009).

Japan represents a developed economy with many industrial advantages that represents advancements in processes that can be incorporated into the operations of companies found in other countries. The study highlighted instances in which the Japanese subsidiary operated in ways that were deemed superior to the international parent company. As a result the business processes were studied and management implemented a knowledge transfer project from the subsidiary to the parent company. In this circumstance it was found that the organizational learning orientation was one of the critical components to standardization by these means. Organizations that have characteristics of a learning organization that can embrace cultural differences and new business practices can stand a better chance of survival in the globalized marketplace.

Thus a global culture is slowly becoming an expected norm in international business as companies work to standardize processes in international companies. However, companies often encounter complications that prevent them from efficiently handling with the differences presented by culture and their national identities. Technology is definitely one tool that can help to overcome challenges in communications and the utilization of IT systems can provide a platform for prompt exchange between the parent company and their international subsidiaries. As a result of this trend, many developed countries have already formed sort of a global village in regards to the business community while many developing nations are speedily joining the globalized business world as well.

Implications of Globalization on Human Rights

The globalization of the business world and the rapid development of new technologies have had many developments in regards to human rights. Due to the increased exposure to new products and new ideas various cultures have integrate many aspects of foreign cultures into their own. For example, someone in China can now easily enjoy a hamburger made by the McDonald's fast food chain based in the U.S. Or buy a Mercedes automobile produced in Germany. The effects of the modernization of business markets has inadvertently led to a cultural exchange as well in which people are increasingly open to outside ideas. In a sense, some societies import culture as well as the products they exchange with other countries.

There are different ways to perceive the effects on this trend in regards to their effects on human rights. In regards to the economic impacts that are driven by globalization the results have seemingly been mixed. In many countries, such as China and India for example, globalization has helped to create a thriving middle class that has significant implications for their access to resources and quality of life. However such results do not seem to be spread equally through all societies that have experience the globalization trend. Many critics have argued that the effects of globalization have also driven many people into extreme poverty and have not effectively addressed the billions of individuals who do not have access to many of the necessities of subsistence let alone more idealized needs such as the right to an education (Naim-Ahmed, 2007).

Another implication that the globalization of different cultures and access to information has had on societies around the world is that there seems to be an awaking of public consciousness in many countries. Not only has this spurred high level social and political debates but with the recent wave of social movements that are occurring globally, such as the Arab Spring and the Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement (Mak, 2011), social consciousness about the roles of public institutions and private organizations in society has crossed a new threshold of salience in modern societies. These populist movements have seemed to thrive on the access to information about other populist movements that have occurred in other regions of the world. The movement that began in Tunisia quickly spread to other countries in the region and then was further incorporated into other movements a crossed the globe. Even though the United Nations has played an important role in establishing a set of human rights, it may be the case that the spread of human rights will be fuel by a grass roots bottom up approach as opposed to a mandate by the U.N.

Human Rights for Future Generations

One of the more interesting human rights issues is also one of the most intensely contested one. Some theorists do not believe that future generations necessarily are entitled to any rights until the time in which they actually exist. Their existence is not a guaranteed certainty and as a result it is argued that it would not be fair to deprive the current generations in any way for any considerations of the possible future members of the species. However, most people seem to believe that there must be accommodations made to preserve the future of our species; however these opinions vary widely on the scale and scope of such provisions. This section will mention two of the primary trends that has impacts on whether human rights will be able to be applied to future generations of the human race.

Overpopulation

One trend that lies beneath most of the other modern environmental concerns is the fact that the human population has been growing at an exponential rate for quite some time now. If any species in nature reproduces in numbers that exceed its natural habitats ability to sustain the population then this is generally considered to be what is referred to as overpopulation. For example, if a population of grazing animals effectively consumes all of the vegetation faster than it can grow then have reached a point in which they are no longer sustainable. At this point the grazing animals can either migrate or the population will suffer. The point at which the population can survive in one habitat forever is considered to be the carrying capacity of the habitat. So if the population of grazing animals and the local vegetation maintains a perfect balance between each other which can last forever then they are considered to be at carrying capacity. This type of balance persists throughout most ecological systems on the planet.

Humans represent an exceptional case for carrying capacity concerns. In contrast to considering at any geographically-based habitat, humans now cover most of the entire planet. As a result, the human habitat is the entire planet Earth. Although humans do not live in every corner of the Earth, they either directly or indirectly influence every habitat on the planet. Therefore to consider the carrying capacity of how many people the planets ecosystems can support many various systems have to be considered. Humans require fresh water, food, shelter, and a suitable climate which many consider to be human rights. If the human race consumers more than the Earth can replenish then the species will be out of balance with the carrying capacity and this could result in the loss of a great deal of life and led to many people living under horrific conditions. Currently the human population has increased its population doubling time to every fifty eight years (Pimentel, 2011).

There have been many attempts to curb population growth. The best example can be provided by China's one child policy. If each couple has only one child in a generation then the next generation will be half as large as the previous one. It takes two children by a man and a woman to replace their own lives upon their death. Therefore if two people only have one child then this works to slow the growth rate considerably. Since China's population is so large, this has had a dramatic impact on the world's population growth even though many perceive the policy to be questionable. Other methods to curb population growth include the education of women about family planning and birth control methods. Another trend that seems to be evolving is that urban residents seem to be also reproducing under the population replenishment rate.