Student reactions to geographical and cultural divisions in North America and South America

Race and Poverty Journal

Introduction to South America

Points

One of the first points the document makes relates to the geographical situation of the South American continent, which is said to be far more prominent into the Atlantic Ocean than North America.

A second point is the new era within South America in terms of its multinational relationships. Despite regional disparities and political turmoil that marked its past, the continent as a whole appears to realize the developmental potential that lies in forging multinational ties.

The third point relates to the ancient Andean cultures in South America, which thrived prior to the coming of the Europeans. The document focuses on the magnificence of these cultures and the success they had in developing their social and economic prowess.

Reactions

My first reaction to the first point was surprise; I never had any idea of the lateral relationship of South America to its northern counterpart, so it was interesting to learn.

The second point offers some hope of a better future for a continent that has been well-known for its general poverty and lack of development. This point therefore gives me a sense of optimism, not only for the continent itself, but also for a world in which such change is possible.

Reaction: surprise

I find the third point a little tragic. It is sad indeed to think that nothing more than the invasion of a foreign nation could have created the effective ruin of formerly prosperous nations. On the other hand, what the document says also fascinates me, since the Andean peoples and their history are shrouded in mystery. I find myself somewhat fascinated and inspired to investigate more deeply into this aspect of history.

Introduction to North America

Points

One of the first points the document makes is that more than 75% of North Americans live in towns and cities, and that the country is the most urbanized in the world.

A second point is that Canada and the United States, both grouped together in the nomination of "North America," are going through a period of extreme geographical and infrastructure change. New regions are emerging. Old ones need to reinvent themselves to survive in this dynamic new world.

Another point relates to Canada and its tendency towards social division relating not only to culture, but also to language. According to the document, the two most dominant groups in the country are those who speak English and those who speak French. Interspersed with these there are also native ethnic groups such as the Inuit and other tribes.

Reactions

While the first point does not in fact surprise me, I am surprised by the extent of urbanization in the country. I did not know that the country was the most urbanized on earth; I had always assumed that one of the European countries would possess this statistic.

I found myself both surprised and inspired by the second point. My idea of the United States and especially Canada has been of a somewhat static country, where the social and economic dynamics were more or less stable. To find out that this is not the case makes me want to find out more, especially from a sociological viewpoint, in terms of the "new" and "old" territories.

The third point also surprised me, since I had no idea of the extent of division among the ethnic and linguistic groups in Canada.

Garbarino: Chapters 2 and 3

Points

One of the first points made by these chapters is that the origin or at least one of the origins of ethnographic research was based in imperialism. Conquering nations were faced with issues of control and communication, and were therefore encouraged to do ethnographic research to help them face these challenges.

A second point relates to church interests. With imperialist conquest came the drive to convert native tribes to the predominant European religion, which was Christianity, and more often than not Roman Catholicism.

The author also makes the point that the Europeans used their economic and technological superiority as a basis for the idea that they were in fact superior, on all levels, to the native tribes they conquered.

Reactions

What is interesting here is how the chapter starts, with a focus on ethnographic research as if it occurred with complete academic integrity. I find it very difficult to believe that this offers a full and unbiased account of what truly happened as a result of the imperialist drive among Europeans. Surely research was not their only focus when interacting with native tribes.

When the point about religion is made, the author appears to ignore again the brutal methods often used by European missionaries to convert the natives. While he does make a good point about preserving native languages in written form and understanding the importance of relativism, I think the way in which it is presented is a little misleading.

This section seems to have a more balanced view of colonialization. I am just not sure that it is not still a somewhat downplayed version of the actual effects of a sense of superiority.

Brown: Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee

Points

One of the first points, made in the introduction, contrasts wildly with the somewhat subdued reference to colonialism and imperialism in the previous reading. Here, the focus is on the violence and greed that often accompanied imperialism and colonialism, with the author focusing on the reverential attitude towards personal freedom not for those who did not have it but by those who already did.

A second point, also in the introduction of this work, is that authentic Indian writings about their experiences of this period were not published prominently, but did survive in the form of obscure publication in subdued circulation.

At the start of the narrative itself, after the introduction, Brown makes the point that Christopher Columbus saw the perceived "goodness" and gentleness of the native tribes as weakness, and began a legacy that is well-known today, as the abuse and extermination of the native people of the United States in favor of European superiority and colonialism.

Reactions

The first point here, and indeed the entire reading, is written by a victim of imperialism and colonialism rather than by those perpetrating it. It appears to be the other extreme to what was noted above, with Garbarino's writing. I as reader am left with the question of which of these experiences is most authentic, or is there a middle ground that has not been considered?

My questions are further strengthened by the second point made in this work, that European writings were far more prominently published than those by the native tribes.

Finally, the point made about Columbus and his view of the native tribes seem sad and pointless to me, from a viewpoint centuries later.

Nabokov: Native American Testimony

Points

One of the first points made in the document is the first reaction of one of the natives to the physical differences between them and the white invaders. The beards of the white men were something unfamiliar to them, which they did not like, although there is an acknowledgement of kind eyes.

A second point concerns the Indian tendency towards thievery from the invading peoples. A representative told them to stop their thievery, on the threat of being punished for this.

The third point concerns the circumstances imposed on the Navajo tribes. Starvation was a reality for many, which explains why many felt a need to steal to feed their families.

Reactions

What I like about the first part of the narrative is that it creates a subtle connecting factor in terms of preconceived ideas, which is a human trait, connected to experience, rather than a purely European one, although it is often presumed to be so. It appears that there is a relatively mutual distrust of what is unknown.

What is interesting about the second point is the factor of perspective. From the Native American perspective, the colonizers came to steal their land and means of making a life. On the other hand, the Europeans and other colonizers viewed the Native Americans as no more than thieves, who would use any opportunity to steal.

The third point makes me profoundly sad, since it brings home to me the terrible suffering caused by the meeting between the cultures. Regardless of all claims to the contrary, there has been terrible suffering as a result. This is indicated by the chapter title itself, which proclaims "Exiles in their own Land."

Information Sheets on Big Mountain

Points

One point made about the Big Mountain project is that the Office of Surface Mining issued a decision to approve Peabody Western Coal Company's mine permit revision, which would allow the company to continue with a mining project in the region.

A second point is that the two major political parties in the United States, the Democrats and Republicans, have approved the project.

One of the most interesting points the document makes is that the area has been home to native peoples for at least 7,000 years.

Reactions

When thinking about the anthropology/imperialism debate, I am left wondering if Garbarino somehow has access to a different history than the one that is commonly accepted in the world today. There is a large amount of evidence to suggest that the assumption of superiority caused the destruction of many of the tribes Garbarino claims to have been of anthropological interest to the same nations who destroyed them.

The second point is interesting to me and makes me begin to consider the idea that my own views of colonialism, especially in the United States, might be a little uninformed.

The point of agriculture and urbanization in Chapter 5 intrigued me a little, since I was not aware that urbanization was already a phenomenon so early in the history of Europe.

Malinowski "The Subject, Method, and Scope of this Inquiry

Points

Like many of the other readings, Malinowski makes the point that the native tribes had particular prowess in various areas, adding the phrase "before their extinction." In this specific case, the native tribes are said to have been extremely skilled at navigation and training.

This point is followed by a more specific description of the trade relations among the tribes living at the South Sea Islands, along with the specific goods they used for trading.

In the third section of the chapter, Malinowski begins to describe the specific method involved in the anthropological research described in the chapter. It is an interesting and dramatic account of the practical challenges and physical environment the author faced during the study.

Reactions

So many of the readings make statements that make me feel nostalgic for a time that I never experienced, but that I know existed on a purely intellectual level. The first point made in this reading brought this reaction. I feel sad, because I know that we will never know the excellence of knowledge and skill the native tribes displayed during their most successful years of existence. That they are extinct is simply tragic.

The second point mentioned above made me feel a little better, at least from the point-of-view that the cultures and lessons we can learn from them were at least not completely lost to the mists of time and imperialism. Indeed, I feel somewhat inspired to learn more

Learning about the specific physical and intellectual challenges the author faced during the study gave me a bit of pause in my enthusiasm to learn more. Perhaps this is best left to those who fully understand the challenges involved.

Linton: One Hundred Percent American

Points

One of the first points Linton makes in this piece is the fact that the diffusion of culture traits is a continual process and that it most often occurs subconsciously rather than consciously.

A second point the author makes flows easily from the first, is that it is far easier to assume cultural diffusion than it is to prove it, precisely because it is so subtle in nature.

On the second page of the document, the author goes on to make the point that Americans tend to be very concerned with preserving what they regard as their culture, often disregarding the fact that this very culture is, more often than not, a mixture of many different cultures brought to the country's shores by immigration.

Reactions

The first point is extremely intriguing to me and something I would not have considered to be true without some evidence. However, the more I think about it, the more it makes sense. It is a human phenomenon to either consciously or subconsciously take on the characteristics of others. This happens in families and between friends. So there is no reason for it not to happen among cultures as well.

In terms of the second point, it helps me to understand my first reaction, in that the subtlety of culture trait diffusion makes it so difficult to detect. This makes it probable that most people who are not anthropological experts would find it surprising, at least initially, that this process takes place even today.

The third point is an interesting one. It is ironic to me, but not particularly surprising, that the United States, as a nation of immigrants, can be so very prejudiced against those they do not regard as part of the "American" nation, such as any new generation of immigrants.

Ember & Ember: "Marriage, Family, and Kinship"

Points

The authors make several interesting points about marriage. The first is not surprising, in that there exist different rituals and rules, according to culture, for marriage and the ceremonies by which marriage partners are accepted as forming a new family.

Another point the authors make is that incest is a universal taboo among cultures.

The authors also explain the idea of marriage payments. In some cultures, such payments occur from the bride's family to the groom, while in other cultures, the groom's family makes the payment.

Reactions

My reaction to the first point was not surprise, as it takes only a few years of life in the world to realize that there are different rules and ways by which a wedding is accomplished within the different cultures. My main reaction here is a desire to study and compare various marriage traditions among cultures. Finding parallels in the different rituals would be interesting.

One such parallel is made in the second point, in that incest is a universal taboo among cultures. What is interesting about this is the fact that this has not always been the case in human history. If ancient manuscripts such as the Bible are to be believed, for example, incest was a common practice to ensure the survival or numbers of a nation. It would be interesting, however, to verify the truth of this by historical investigation.

Again, I am not surprised to learn that marriage often involves payment between the families. What is interesting is that this tradition has been waning in today's western world,

where marriage is more often a contract between individuals than family-bound decisions.

Marx & Engels: The Manifesto of the Communist Party

Points

The Manifesto makes some interesting and convincing points, the first of which is that the social history of the world has always involved class struggles.

The first refutable point the Manifesto makes is that what the authors refer to as the "epoch of the bourgeoisie" has simplified the antagonism among different classes.

From this point on, the Manifesto continues to make several points about the "bourgeoisie," which could be seen, from today's point-of-view, to be increasingly contentious. One of these points is that the family has been reduced to a number of relationships based upon economic prowess rather than emotions such as love and loyalty.

Reactions

The first point is interesting for a variety of reasons, but mostly because of its nature. Nobody can refute the truth of the statement regarding class struggles. This is a good technique to open the minds of readers to the further points that are made.

The second point, mentioned above, has been well chosen in terms of position. The authors begin with a number of historical facts, which cannot be refuted. This is then followed with points that gradually become more contentious as specifically promoting the ideals of communism. I feel that this is a clever way to put together a Manifesto for the purpose of convincing the reader of ideals that are not necessarily commonly accepted truths.

The final point, about family relationship being stripped from their emotional strength, appears particularly contentious. I am not sure that I believe in the absolute truth of this, as stated by the Manifesto. Instead, I feel that it might be a statement created in response to a class and viewpoint that opposes those of the Communists.

Ong: The Gender and Labor Politics of Postmodernity

Points

The document begins by making a point regarding the divide between actual experienced reality and academic constructs. In other words, there is a marked difference between the way in which reality is experienced by workers and the analyses conducted about the world of labor by academic researchers.

A second point Ong makes is a little more specific, in that it provides an example of the basic difference between academic expectation and the realities of the labor world, and specifically how these manifest in developing countries. Two expectations that have been refuted by reality include the expected rise in feminist and/or class solidarity. Neither of these have shown specific emergence, and indeed, the reality has defied any single analysis.

A third point, to substantiate the previous two, is that the complexity of the labor world, especially in third-world countries, is the fact that corporations have become increasingly complex in their labor pool requirements, with concentrations in unevenly distributed developments throughout the world.

Reactions

The first point does not surprise me greatly, although this is the first time I saw it printed in so many words. I think it is a common phenomenon of academic study that the development of reality, especially today, occurs at a pace that is faster than investigations can be published.

The second point the author makes is a little more surprising, in that there is not specific single manifestation of solidarity that could be claimed for investigation.

The third point is, again, not greatly surprising, but does offer satisfying support for the first two points.

Inda & Rosaldo: Introduction: A World in Motion

Points

The document begins with a number of "snapshots" to illustrate the nature of globalization, and the resultant effects that different nations and countries have on each other. The point here is that, while there remains a specific and intense focus on the original culture, this, more often than not, tends to be mingled with cultures that comes into contact with it.

A second and more specific point relates to the role of women in society, with some believing that emancipation should be at the center of global social change, while others remain reticent of cultures that would have women in specific traditional or cultural roles.

Another interesting point is that globalization has had the effect of compressing both time and space, thus creating a situation in which individuals need to cope with this compression at an increasingly rapid pace.

Reactions

I am not sure how I feel about the first point. On the one hand, I feel that it is a good thing for cultures and people to intermingle, since it promotes a sense of global connectedness and understanding. It promotes the idea that no specific way of doing things is the only or right way. On the other hand, there is the danger of subduing what makes culture unique in favor of a more intermingled, uniform cluster of cultural elements.

The changing roles of women in the world is highly complicated by culture. Although those who have been born and bred in developed countries such as the United States tend to believe in the rights of women as sacrosanct, this view overlooks culture and tradition.

The third point is also interesting, since I have not ever really considered the effects of globalization on our experience of time and space.

From the Fat of our Souls: Preface

Points

One of the first points the author makes is that the book will focus on questions regarding the choice of different or multiple medical resources and the nonmedical reasons for which they do so.

A second point in the preface is that there is both upward and downward mobility in Kachitu, which is to be the focus of the author's study.

Another point the preface makes is that, along with other more common phenomena, even membership in the Methodist church could act as a mask for social class.

Reactions

The first point immediately intrigues me, making me feel that I need to find out more in the rest of the book. Perhaps it is my western viewpoint, but using medical resources for nonmedical reasons appear a little bizarre to me.

The second point brought to me a sense of intrigue almost as strong as the first. Again, I would like to read more to find out the reasons why downward mobility would occur, since upward mobility usually tends to receive greater attention from publications than downward mobility. This in itself makes the reading unusual.

From the viewpoint of colonialism and the missionary drive, the third point looks extremely intriguing. In conventional wisdom, Christian missionaries to foreign tribes, especially during the later centuries, professed to have a concern primarily for the souls of their converts. Using church membership as a mask for social class appears to be in direct contradiction to such a concern.

From the Fat of Our Souls: Introduction

Points

The introduction makes several points, one of which is that the ultimate hub of civilization in Bolivia is considered to be Kachitu, which includes a Catholic church, a full-time priest, a Methodist church, a hospital, a municipal building, a grammar school and high school, a Sunday market, and a director of criminal investigation.

A further interesting point is that, although there are two Christian churches in the region, neither is able to fully withstand the power of superstition in the region. And instead of trying to withstand these, the Methodist pastor especially uses this superstition to gain the trust of the local populace, and succeeds in doing so.

Another point in the introduction is the seriousness with which the threat of a spirit named the khan achachi were regarded by those on the altiplano.

Reactions

One reaction I had when reading about the first point was that I could not imagine what it could be like to live in a place where the listed items are not part of the social fabric where I live, since they are all considered to be in some way part of our generally accepted human rights.

The psychology behind the pastor's action is interesting to me, since it proved extremely effective. However, I am not sure how much it did for the actual Christian faith of the villagers involved.

The final point mentioned above, about the khan achachi, seems to be much stronger than any drive towards actual Christian faith. Indeed, it appears that the local people are far more concerned with social mobility and the role the church can play in this than changing any of their fundamental belief systems.

From the Fat of our Souls: Chapter 1-3

Points

The first chapter is a vivid description of the researcher and her daughter, as well as their first entrance in the research field of Kachitu.

One interesting point the author makes in Chapter 2 is the fact that women spend most of their time cooking on the altiplano not because of domestic oppression, but simply because there the altitude is such that it takes a very long time for things to boil at that altitude.

A further point implies the genera conception of the local Indian populace, that those of non-Indian origin come only to the country to take advantage of them or exploit them.

Reactions

What I enjoyed about the first chapter is the dramatic description of the researcher's journey with her daughter, as well as her initial apprehensions. I enjoyed the vivid descriptions of her feelings and experiences, especially since these are so alien to me as a relatively sheltered western person.

The interesting thing about the second point is that, as a western reader, I would almost immediately assume male oppression when reading for the first time about the domestic plight and cooking time invested by women on the altiplano. I would not have expected at all that it is simply a practical matter that keeps these women in the kitchen for such extended times.

The third point is a sad manifestation not of inherent prejudice, but of hard experience. In the past, it was all too often the case that the native people in Bolivia and the environment itself has been exploited by non-Indian explorers and invaders. Hence, I can understand the difficulty of the natives to trust those who come to the country, even for a purpose as innocent as simply studying the various local lifestyles.

From the Fat of Our Souls: Chapter 4-6

Points

One interesting the author mentions in Chapter 4 is the climate in Kachitu. At the high altitude, the sun is very hot, but the air thin and the wind cold. This means extremes of temperature in which a person could get radiation burn from the sun but be very cold when in the shade.

Another interesting point is the "gossip corner," where the locals would go to talk about the day's events and each other. A large amount of this concerns not only what the author terms "medical dialogue," but also an undercurrent regarding the identity of individuals. This is where the author makes the connection between medical dialogue and the meaning of this in the social lives of individuals.

In Chapter 5, the author describes a mythical beast known as the "kharisiri" or "Kari," which was believed until far into the 20th century, to bring a fatal abdominal disease.

Reactions

The first point, about the climate, is a little bizarre to me. I am not sure that I would be able to survive in a climate like that, especially with the other survival challenges such as cooking and planting, which the author mentions earlier in the book.

The second point is also interesting, in the difference between the source of news and dialog in Kachitu and the sources of news in the industrialized world. In the western world, we generally rely on technology for our information and news.

The interesting thing about the kharisiri is that it manifested as the image of a dead Franciscan monk that provided the bishop with fat from human kidneys to make holy oil. What struck me about this was the mixture between religion, superstition, and medical science.

From the Fat of Our Souls: Chapter 7-9

Points

One point the author makes about the relationship between status and medical science is that language plays an important role. As a result of his ability to speak Spanish, for example, Eugenio earned respect and increased his patient load at the clinic, for example.

Another point is the superseding of old Indian-vecino distinctions in favor of rural-cosmopolitan ones, where city dwellers tend to regard themselves or are in fact of a higher social and economic status than those in rural areas.

A third point is that the responses given by interviewees reflected how cultural identities were chosen and changed by those giving the responses. These relate to their economic and social situations.

Reactions

What was interesting to me about the first point was the fact that language plays such a major role in the perception of social prowess and importance. This appears to be a universal human trait, especially in English speaking countries. One might even translate the entire point to accent as well.

In terms of the second point, I am again impressed by the way in which, more than earlier in the book, the author highlights a concept that appears universal in human societies. This is confirmed by the phenomenon of urbanization, where people tend to move from rural areas to improve their social or economic status.

The interesting concept in the third point is that those investigated in the environment of Kachitu appear to be more flexible in their ability not only to change their religion or medical choices, but also their social and economic status, almost at will or at least by choice.

From the Fat of Our Souls: Chapter 10-12

Points

One point made in these chapters is the fact that those visiting the Methodist clinic made certain choices regarding their treatment, as depending on their ailments. A person suffering from the khan achachi would, for example, choose the yatiri, while an upset stomach would send the individual to the medicinas caseras.

A point that follows is that the already complicated art of diagnosis is even further complicated by the country's culture, differential perceptions, and medical ideologies.

A third point in these chapters is that medical dialogue is able to transform metaphors of victimization and oppression into instruments of empowerment, and the author shows that many individuals succeed in doing so.

Reactions

The first point brings home to me a motive throughout the book; that superstition, a belief in magic, adherence to religion, and medical science are far more integrated with each other in the Kachituro environment than in the more scientifically inclined western worlds.

The second point above reminds me of a medical drama I once saw, where one episode concerned a Chinese mother whose son had taken ill. She insisted on using a traditional ritual to find a cure for her, even while the doctors worked to save him. There was a lot of resistance to the mother's method; the feeling I get from this book is that such resistance would not be offered in this environment.

The third point is both tragic and offers hope. Tragically, it demonstrates that such metaphors still do exist. Hopefully, however, these same metaphors are proving to be powerless in terms of resisting the dynamic changes experienced by the natives of Kachitu.

From the Fat of Our Souls: Appendices

Points

The appendices contain interviews with individuals to determine the ways in which the natives see illnesses and their remedies. One of the first points made here is that the relationship between "natural" cures and "magicalness" tends to be a very complex one, which is not paralleled by the way in which the West sees medical science.

A second point concludes that all Kachitunos, regardless of social, educational, or economic background, have more or less the same concepts of and beliefs regarding etiology.

The above point is confirmed by an investigation of Methodist believers, who traditionally shun magic in terms of etiology, nevertheless acknowledge this in others, as demonstrated at the very beginning of the boo, where the Methodist minister acknowledged the local belief in an evil illness causing spirit.

Reactions

The first point reminds me of the one about diagnosis made above. It is made more complex by the interactions between naturalness and magicalness in both the diagnoses and cures for illness. These interactions are by no means linear or simple.

In the light of the social and class divisions, as well as the possible ways to move among these, this point is rather surprising. Yet it is also significant in indicating the flexibility of the movements among the divisions. One unifying medical belief system would probably make it easier for individuals to move among divisions.

This final point is also interesting, but not really surprising to me. Indeed, after reading through the book and the dynamics among religion, magic, and medicine, I would have been surprised at a lack of magical acknowledgement by Methodists.

Goldstein: Foreword, Introduction, Chapter 1

Point

One of the first points in Chapter 1 is a dramatic description of Gloria, a woman who is mother to several children and caretaker to several more. On mother's day, she is not with her children. Instead, she is in her favorite bar "getting on with a plan to inebriate."

Reaction

I had several reactions when reading about this for the first time. I was first surprised that a woman would leave her children at home to drink, even at the best of times. I also called into question her ability to in fact be a good mother. This is an initial impression that changed as I read through the rest of the book.

Chapter 2-3

Point

An interesting, or rather, tragic point in these chapters is the vivid description the author gives of how difficult it is to earn a living wage, especially for a mother such as Gloria, with both her own and her adopted children to care for. She makes the point that, before receiving a better offer from an employer, Gloria was little more than a slave to her and her children's need to eat.

Reaction

I feel a little saddened to know that so many in Rio struggle in such abject poverty, while the image the world has of the city and country as colorful, rich, prosperous, and committed to the Carnival.

Chapter 4-5

The author here makes another surprising observation about Gloria. When receiving news that her son died violently in a criminal environment, she is neither sad nor surprised, claiming that she has cried so much for him during her lifetime, that her tears have all been spent.

Reaction

After my initial reaction to Gloria's apparent hardness, especially as a mother, I kind of understand her point. The author also explains her reaction to her weeping ex-husband's sorrow in such a way that I can understand her anger. She was the one who raised the boy and cared for him. He repays her with a life of crime and early death. Anger must be all she has left for him.

Chapters 6-7

Point

In the final chapters of the book, the author discusses sexuality in Brazil, and particularly in Rio. She describes the sexism that males enact as the order of the day, but also that some, like Gloria and her friend, have constructed ways to resist.

Reaction

The interesting thing about this resistance is the way in which the women construct it, by means of language rather than violence. Language is indeed a powerful tool, and these women have brought home to me how its use mean much more than just communication.