Reading Strategies\' Impact on ELL

¶ … Reading Strategies' Impact on ELL Students

Today, more than 2 million students from non-English-speaking backgrounds attend public school in the United States and their numbers are expected to triple by 2020. The research to date confirms that these students require support in their native languages as well as in English to achieve academic proficiency, but far too few English language learners (ELLs) are receiving the level of educational support that is required. In this environment, identifying improved strategies for facilitating English language acquisition represents a timely and valuable enterprise. There are a number of challenges that are involved, but the mandates are clear. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, signed into law January 2002, placed renewed emphasis, urgency, and expectations on all states and school districts to ensure, for the first time, that every child, including those with limited English proficiency, meet the same state academic achievement standards as native English speakers at the same grade level. The purpose of this study was to identify effective vocabulary building and reading strategies for ELL students that can be used by classroom teachers to help these young learners gain academic proficiency as quickly as possible strategies.

THE IMPACT of READING STRATEGIES on ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER/ENGLISH as SECOND LANGUAGE STUDENTS

Introduction

Background to the Problem/Issue

Educators in the United States today are faced with some profound challenges with respect to the delivery of high quality English language services for the growing numbers of students entering the schools with limited English skills. According to Mohr (2004), the numbers of students who are currently beginning their educational careers in U.S. public school classrooms enter school with a first language other than English continues to increase and all signs indicate these increases will continue well into the future. In spite of a growing body of evidence that indicates English language learner (ELL) students should be provided with ongoing support in their native languages and allowed at least 4 to 7 years to achieve academic proficiency in English, few ELL students currently enjoy this level of support.

Defined as the ability not only to use language for reading and writing as well as to acquire new information in content areas (Lee, Butler & Tippins, 2007), academic proficiency requires significant time and effort on the part of students and teachers alike. Unfortunately, though, English-language learners (ELLs) are commonly expected to become academically proficient and sufficiently fluent in English to take standardized and state-mandated tests in just a few years (Mohr, 2004). Likewise, Lee and her associates (2007) emphasize that academic proficiency in English is not achieved by ELLs overnight but rather requires several years of classroom instruction. These educators note that, "To develop 'academic proficiency in English takes longer than to grow peer-appropriate conversational skills. Academic proficiency in English includes fewer contextual clues such as body language, gestures, facial expressions, or various signs to understand meanings of texts" (p. 43). Notwithstanding the clear need for acquiring proficiency as quickly as possible, though, this level of instruction for most ELL students remains uncommon in American classrooms (Mohr, 2004). Indeed, in far too many cases, ELL students are not only failing to achieve academic proficiency, many ELL students fail to achieve sufficient progress at all to maintain parity with their native-English-speaking counterparts (Mohr, 2004)

Indeed, the stakes are truly high and there are no resources available to be wasted in the effort to help these young learners realize their full potential, but there are a number of challenges that are involved that must be addressed in order to do so. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, signed into law January 2002, placed renewed emphasis, urgency, and expectations on all states and school districts to ensure, for the first time, that every child, including those with limited English proficiency, meet the same state academic achievement standards as native English speakers at the same grade level (Freeman & Crawford, 2008).

Furthermore, NCLB mandates that American schools, and school districts, are strictly accountable for this achievement. Those school districts receiving Title I federal funds that fail to meet adequate yearly progress goals for two or more consecutive years are considered in need of improvement and underperforming and thus face a range of severe sanctions, such as school closure, firing of teachers, offering of public school choice and transportation, providing of supplemental educational services, and implementation of certain corrective actions. The pressure to demonstrate adequate yearly progress is particularly acute in schools and districts with relatively high percentages of English-language learners schools that are frequently linguistically segregated with concentrations of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds (Freeman & Crawford, 2008).

Moreover, the challenges are becoming increasingly pronounced as the sheer numbers of students who are involved are taken into account. In this regard, Saenz, Fuchs and Fuchs (2005) emphasize that, "American schools of the 21st century face the challenge of educating the world's most diverse student body. This diversity is reflected in variations in achievement, socioeconomic status, cultural background, and linguistic background" (p. 231). With respect to differences in linguistic background, current estimates indicate that more than 2 million students come from non-English-speaking backgrounds and that by the year 2020, the number of ELL students will approach six million (Saenz et al., 2005).

While the group of students with non-English-speaking backgrounds is truly diverse and includes a broad array of languages, the most largest subgroup of ELL students in the United States is currently comprised of Spanish speakers who represent 75% of ELL students today; however, membership in all groups continues to increase and these trends are expected to continue well into the foreseeable future (Saenz et al., 2005). For instance, according to Brown and Broemmel (2011), "The number of ELLs is growing rapidly every year. From 1991 to 2001, the ELL enrollment in public schools in the United States increased by 95%, while the general student population increased only by 12%" (p. 36). A concomitant trend that has accompanied this increase in ELL students in the nation's schools has been changes in the responsibilities of the educators who are involved with a growing focus on developing reading strategies that can facilitate language acquisition and help sustain it over time. As Brown and Broemmel (2011) recently observed, "Most importantly, teachers have to change the way they think about ELLs. Schools and teachers can no longer afford to think that ELLs can learn to read once they master English" (p. 35). Changing the way people think, though, is a difficult proposition under the best of circumstances and the circumstances in these cases are complex and involve high-stake outcomes that demand effective solutions, a need that directly relates to the purpose of this study which is discussed further below.

Purpose of the Study

Research has shown that the number of ELL students has been steadily increasing and these students continue to struggle when it comes to reading. Therefore, the overarching purpose of this study was to identify effective reading strategies for ELL students. This research purpose is an extension of personal and professional interest in this field. In support of this overarching purpose, the study highlights various components of instructional strategies for ELL classrooms to evaluate how a well-balanced ESL curriculum can help both students and teachers overcome preconceived notions about different cultures to create a learning environment where all students are valued for their unique heritages and individuality.

Rationale for the Project

The ability of English language learners to succeed depends in large part on regular classroom teachers instead of those educators specifically trained for the purpose and some teachers may find themselves with just a few or even a single ELL student who will require the same curricular offerings as an entire class of such students, making the need for effective learning strategies for these students all the more acute (Lewis-Moreno, 2007). In this regard, Lewis-Moreno (2007) describes a variety of methods for teachers to help students who are learning English. According to this educator, "Ever-increasing numbers of English-language learners (ELL students) arrive at the doors of U.S. public schools each year. They present myriad challenges for the educators who must serve their needs" (Lewis-Moreno, 2007, p. 772). In response to these challenges, a number of issues have emerged with respect to federal and state accountability standards that demand answers including the following:

1. How can we fairly assess students with limited English skills using the instruments developed by the state?

2. What happens to our accountability ratings if large numbers of students arrive with limited experience with formal education and have to take the tests?

3. How can we find highly qualified English as a second language teachers with certification and experience?

These questions make it clear that providing ELL students with the support they need in their native language as well as the support they need to acquire academic proficiency is a complex enterprise that demands complex solutions. Despite the need, though, many teachers remain ill prepared to assist ELL students in the classroom. Educators who are confronted with just a few or even a single ELL student must determine how best to assist these students without being able to speak their language and how can current curricular offerings can be individualized to the best effect. There is also the question of what approach should be used in a given setting. For instance, Lewis-Moreno points out that, "A great deal of energy is expended selecting and defending the model used: Should it be late- or early-exit bilingual, dual language, or English immersion?" (2007, p. 773). Although complex problems require complex solutions, a common theme that runs through the relevant literature concerns the need to use what resources are available to their maximum advantage. As Lewis-Moreno points out, "Often, too little attention is paid to improving the quality of what is available: Are personnel, resources, and facilities used in the best possible way? If not, what can be done differently?" (2007, p. 773)

The importance of using learning strategies, or the moment-by-moment techniques that we employ to solve problems posed by second language input and output, in order to become a successful English language learner cannot be overstated. Researchers have been aware for several decades that those who achieve a high level of second language proficiency are, by necessity, active strategy users. The importance of using reading strategies is especially critical for English language learners, since high levels of English language literacy -- which are essential for even minimal academic achievement at any level (elementary, secondary, university, and tertiary) -- have been found to correlate with frequent and complex strategy use (Poole, 2005).

Research Questions

This study was guided by the following research questions:

1. What are some of the different teaching strategies that can successfully engage and allow the English language learners to learn and be successful with a feeling of confidence?

2. How do using different reading strategies influence ELL students learning?

Potential Significance of the Study

Because resources are by definition scarce, it just makes good sense to use those learning strategies in general and reading strategies in particular that have proven efficacy for helping ELL students acquire academic proficiency. According to Brown and Broemmel (2011), "Reading can be difficult for native speakers of English (NSEs), however, it is even more difficult for English language learners who are, by definition, in the process of acquiring English" (p. 34). By providing ELL students with appropriate and effective reading strategies, teachers can help these young learners begin the lifelong journey that reading for pleasure provides, and reading for pleasure can encourage further reading which builds on what has already been learned. In this regard, Brown and Broemmel conclude that, "For these students, reading without adequate support can be equated to throwing a child who is not proficient in swimming into water without a life preserver, knowing they will either sink or swim. Even if they manage to swim, we cannot reasonably expect them to enjoy being in the water" (emphasis added) (p. 34).

Definition of Terms

The following definitions of key terms are used in this study:

"Academic English":

"Academic English" is defined as "the ability to read, write, and engage in substantive conversations about math, science, history, and other school subjects" (American Educational Research Association, 2004, p. 2).

ELL:

English language learner

ESL:

English as a second language

NSE:

Native speaker of English

CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW

Although the general education curriculum differs across classes, the emphasis on reading to learn in content area classes requires that students possess reading strategies and skills, including basic early reading skills, to access and comprehend the general education curriculum and to participate in content area instruction. Yet, we know that many students with reading disabilities lack effective reading strategies that facilitate the comprehension of content area text; are not familiar with text structures; and may not possess basic decoding strategies and reading fluency. We also know that some students (e.g., English language learners or students from poverty) may not have the vocabulary knowledge needed to be successful in content area classes Therefore, if struggling students (students with reading disabilities and low achievers) who are from low socioeconomic backgrounds are going to learn from text, general education and special education teachers in inclusive classes must focus on content area reading by integrating the teaching of reading strategies into instruction (Bryant, Linan-Thompson, Ugel, Hamff & Hougen, 2001).

English language learners require very specific instruction while in the classroom to be successful (Murphy, 2009). Although it is well documented that extensive reading plays an important role in the development of language skills by ELLs, it remains unclear how vocabulary is acquired; however, it is known that language and vocabulary are the primary vehicles of classroom instruction, and that the learning tasks require ELLs to repeatedly process vocabulary (Tran, 2007). Vocabulary instruction for English-Language Learners is still not given adequate attention; however, vocabulary plays an important role in reading comprehension, and extensive reading can help develop vocabulary knowledge and enrich the knowledge of language structure (Tran, 2006).

When schools and districts begin to reflect on how best to address the needs of ELL students, they should first consider the prevailing attitudes in the school system toward those who are learning English as a second language. The goal of any district should be an ecological approach rather than a medical model. That is, students who arrive from other cultures with other languages should be viewed as assets rather than liabilities. If myths and misconceptions about those learning a new language are accepted, the type and quality of instruction for ELL students can be adversely affected. Teachers who adopt an ecological approach take the initiative to learn how to address the needs of diverse learners in their mainstream classrooms. They don't expect the ESL teacher to "fix them" first. If you often hear such comments as "How can he be gifted if he doesn't even speak English?" Or "She's ESL! She can't be in an honors class," it is unlikely that ELL students will be well represented in programs for the gifted and talented or in honors and advanced courses. As a result, the long-term educational opportunities for ELL students will not be equal to those of their English-speaking peers (Lewis-Moreno, 2007, p. 773).

For many educators, it has finally become axiomatic that if students are not learning they way they are being taught, teachers must teach they way they learn but this requires significant effort to move out of a professional comfort zone into the unknown. Nevertheless, communicating in a way that students understand is an important approach that all effective teachers should enforce. Each student should be evaluated when they are enrolled in school to determine their correct placement in ELL programs. Once there has been a determination on placement, the ELL teacher must establish a plan that best suits the student and his or her needs. Repetition, using gestures, exhibiting pictures or objects are just a few modifications teachers us with ELL students. For the process to be a success, the customers and students must understand the seller, the educator (Echevarria, Vogt, MaryEllen & Short, 2004). This is why we have to continue practices repeatedly.

An effective teacher will study the content of a student's response. Feedback is a definitive demonstration of comprehension, regardless of the feedback being verbal or non-verbal (Holly, Arhar & Kasten, 2009). The observant teacher should be able to see if the children comprehend or if the student experiences language barriers. The more immediate and appropriate the feedback, the more it can build confidence and cultivate communication skills between the teacher and students or between students and their peers.

The type of feedback will vary depending on the level of the student and his/her level of English language acquisition. The earlier we begin the more likely the students are to be successful with vocabulary and word selection. These students at an early production stage will benefit from feedback that models correct English. These students will require varying amounts of correction and listening to correctly formed language from both the teacher and their peers. In the students with high levels of English language acquisition and students that have moved into intermediate and advanced fluency states, feedback begins to be similar to that provided to the native English speakers. These students are in need of greater exposure at the level to sophisticated English language (Hill & Flynn, 2006). The teachers promote learning and interaction through grouping ELL students with non-ELL giving student's opportunity to develop skills of the student speaking the English language. By avoiding grouping ELL students together, they will be forced to rely on the developing skills in their learning the English language (Lessow-Hurley, 2003).

It is critical to the success of a teacher working with ELL students to take an abstract idea and make it meaningful to the ELL student by using their "schema" (scheme) to build on the background knowledge students need (Hill & Flynn, 2006). Linking student's knowledge directly to the lesson's objective will result in greater understanding for English learners (Echevarria et al., 2004, p. 63-64). Using visual and other types of concrete materials that will help English language learners understand the message sent by words. Some students are more visual learners than others are. Using content-based English as a second language instruction provides models for making the content of a particular academic class comprehensible and encourages language learning by highlighting key features of the English language. Input can be made comprehensible by planning ways to integrate instruction talk with visuals (photos, pictures, and drawings), real objects, boy language, slower rate of speech, and high frequency vocabulary. Teachers and students should be encouraged to use the ESL student's primary language when possible. Types of languages spoken, numbers of students in those groups, availability of bilingual staff, and financial resources are some of the factors that will determine how the primary language will be used, for what amount of time, and for what purpose.

Student engagement is by far the most important instructional strategy for teaching ELL students (Stronge, 2002). Once each piece of the instructional strategy model is in place, ELL students in the classroom can effectively spend time using the strategies to construct their learning. An absence of the instructional strategies will result in a lack of learning for ELL students within the frame of the curriculum. The bottom line is that when students are engaged, students will be more successful than in the absence of engagement. This is true across the board for student learning but more so for the ELL student. Engaged time can be equated to time spent on task. The time that students are actively participating in their education during instructional time has a direct correlation to how well these particular students succeed in the classroom.

Strategies to increase student engagement rely heavily on the teacher being prepared. There are few courses in teacher preparation programs that focus on student management.

Management of a class is a concern when taking time on task or engagement into consideration. When students have disengaged time, no learning is going on and you see behavior issues. Teachers must recognizes and teach students so the students is not mislabeled because or boredom. As a society in general, the focus needs to be placed on the value of a solid education (Reed & Railsback, 2003). Nevertheless, assessing reading for ELLs has always represented a challenge for educators. Indeed, it remains unclear how students are supposed to learn to both read and speak a new language at the same time (Murphy, 2009).

One approach that native English speakers use to learn to read is to apply phonic skills to sounds so that words on the page match their speaking vocabulary. In this regard, Murphy reports that "English-speaking students can put together the initial sounds -- such as / c / / a / / t/ -- until they recognize the sounds as cat. But if the student doesn't speak English, the word "cat" might be meaningless if he doesn't recognize the spoken word" (p. 26). Monitoring progress of phonemic awareness in isolation of other indicators, though, may not indicate why a student is experiencing difficulty with reading. The problem may be due to a lack of exposure to the English language or a lack of sufficient opportunities to engage in tasks related to phonemic awareness (Murphy, 2009).

To assess reading comprehension for ELLs, teachers can use alternatives by which students can demonstrate their understanding. Students may be asked to:

1. Categorize, classify, or sort;

2. Draw based on written text;

3. Match words with pictures, phrases, or sentences, and match sentences with paragraphs;

4. Underline or highlight main ideas or supporting details;

5. Complete cloze exercises;

6. Use a word bank, in which words are written in a box below the text for easy selection;

7. Sequence pictures, sentences, or paragraphs; or,

8. Respond to oral comprehension and questions, such as running records or written text supported visually (Murphy, 2009, p. 26).

To assess instruction during reading, choose texts that contain content and themes from the student's culture. Background knowledge helps readers understand material more easily. Give students access to books containing content with which they're already familiar, or expose them to content in the text before actually reading the material. Modify the curriculum unit by allowing students to read about a topic for several days, with the material becoming a bit more difficult as the students' background knowledge about the subject increases. These modifications will give teachers a truer picture of student comprehension unhampered by a lack of familiarity with the content or background of the reading selection (Murphy, 2009).

Teachers can listen to students read text and conduct running records in order to analyze miscues. These miscues give teachers information on how students use strategies when encountering a problem. Analyzing miscues helps teachers determine if the miscues are based on a lack of language structure that might interfere with meaning. For example, if a student reads, "They sees the book," instead of, "They see the book," the teacher can plan a shared reading session with a language objective focused on subject-verb agreement (Mora, 2006). Conduct running records at least every other month and more frequently with struggling students (Chen and Mora-Flores 2006). Certainly, teachers should assess the level of texts that their students are reading in order to decide on the appropriate level of text for each student. Books have to be at the right level for students with the new words highlighted to facilitate comprehension (Moir 2007).

Likewise, educators need to know the cueing systems available to readers as they decode text. All three cueing systems (semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic) have a role in the reading process since good readers will use all three systems simultaneously. Less competent readers will need more strategies if they cannot comprehend text using only one cueing system. As students read more and are exposed to vocabulary and language patterns, language and reading will improve. To this end, Murphy recommends using the following strategies set forth in Table 1 below to facilitate ELL proficiency.

Table 1

Recommended Strategies for Facilitating Academic Proficiency in ELLs

Strategy

Description

Guided reading

Use guided reading groups to assess student progress in reading, while keeping in mind the student's level of language proficiency. In guided reading for ELLs, group members need to have similar needs in both language and literacy. Scaffolding instruction can support students as they expand their reading strategies in order to comprehend text. Select books for guided reading so that the chosen text is a bit more challenging than students can read independently

Writing workshop.

Even at the earliest stages of language proficiency, students can express their understanding by labeling objects, drawing, or generating lists based on their reading. As their proficiency increases, ELLs can write brief narratives, descriptions, or opinions. To evaluate student writing, use writing samples as benchmarks and a rubric with the characteristics of the ELL writer at each stage of writing development

Conferencing.

Conferencing provides opportunities to assess progress in all four language strands. By using a language conference sheet, teachers can keep a record of the language structures that are being used by the student, the language strategy taught, and the next steps, focusing on one of the language strands.

Vocabulary development

Develop lists of words by drawing from texts used in literacy, social studies, and science. Incorporate into daily instruction some of the everyday words that aren't necessarily part of the curriculum. Teachers specializing in English as a Second Language should preteach academic or content vocabulary so that students will be exposed to the concepts and language they'll face in regular classrooms. Assessments of vocabulary can occur during conferencing or guided lessons or by listening to student conversations. Include vocabulary instruction in everyday instruction and assess throughout the year.

Source: Adapted from Murphy, 2009

Overall, the main goal of the foregoing instructional strategies is to find the best techniques to use in reaching the increasing g population of ELL students. The ultimate goal of providing an opportunity for an equal education remains unchanged. Children are all different and it is imperative for teachers to be open to new ideas and approaches to establish a learning environment and a trusting, engaged relationship with students (Murphy, 2009). This approach has been shown to achieve the goal of facilitating academic proficiency in ELLs, but collaboration between the ESL teacher and mainstream teachers in a school is crucial (Lewis-Moreno, 2007).

The ELL teacher should be an onsite resource for content-area teachers, able to share and model a wide repertoire of reading, writing, vocabulary, and note-taking strategies to scaffold instruction. Scaffolding instruction for ELL students does not mean simply modifying a few practices, such as reducing the number of answer choices or questions or replacing grade-level texts with simplified material. Content and ESL teachers need to take time to plan together and look at grade-level standards to determine the depth and type of understanding expected before developing a unit plan. Are students asked to compare and contrast events or leaders from two eras? Can they determine the best method for solving a mathematical problem? What are the possibilities for assessment tasks that demonstrate a particular level of understanding for a student who is not yet proficient in English? Does the assessment task have to look the same for each student in the class? (Lewis-Moreno, 2007, p. 773).

Likewise, Brown and Broemmel (2011) emphasize that, "The benefits of reading instruction incorporating deep scaffolding are many-fold in that ELLs not only become better readers, but, possibly more importantly, they acquire English faster and to a stronger extent. Reading comprehension greatly enhances second language acquisition because reading itself becomes a comprehensible input when ELLs understand the written text. It is evident that deep scaffolding, when implemented as a sustained, intensive instructional support, can help close the reading achievement gap between ELLs and NSEs" (p. 35). We believe that deep scaffolding provides answers for both teachers and ELLs. Most teachers understand that what may be enough for NSEs is likely quite insufficient for ELLs. We believe that deep scaffolding is an approach that can benefit both groups and does not rely on teachers' understanding of a second language, nor does it add unwieldy amounts of additional planning to teachers' already full plates. It is based both on tenets of effective reading instruction and on understandings of the needs of ELLs. Explicitness of instruction and sustained scaffolding throughout the entire reading process are the keys to successful implementation of deep scaffolding. Teachers have the power to turn noise into meaningful input for ELL students, and we believe that this approach to instruction can help them do just that. Brown and Broemmel (2011)

Brown's (2005) research shows that both NSEs and ELLs from low socioeconomic backgrounds read at similar levels. Thus, NSEs who read below-grade level can definitely benefit from multi-step, intensive, deep scaffolding designed for ELLs. Without it, both groups will likely continue to struggle. Scaffolding instruction may mean providing students with a partially completed graphic organizer for a reading selection, rather than expecting the students to complete it independently. Materials in a student's native language may be used to preview or review concepts or be used side by side with English texts (Lewis-Moreno, 2007). Scaffolded reading strategies should be chosen carefully, with attention paid to the demands of the text and the level of proficiency of the student. What's more, the length of the text doesn't necessarily correspond to the level of difficulty: math textbooks may contain the fewest words but present the most conceptually demanding concepts (Lewis-Moreno, 2007, p. 774). "It is only through generating language and using it in new ways that students truly acquire facility in a language. The mantra "teaching doesn't cause learning, learning causes learning" is especially true for second-language learning. Until students are given multiple opportunities to make meaning of the content and the academic language they are learning and to use their knowledge in other contexts, chances are slim that the newly acquired language skills will become internalized" (Lewis-Moreno, 2007, p. 774). These assertions are supported by the findings of a study by Lee et al. (2007) wherein the researchers concluded that, "People learn to read, and to read better, by reading. In order to improve ELLs' academic English, teachers can help ELLs by previewing reading text, providing contextual clues for reading, choral reading, paired reading, and simultaneous listening and reading of audiotaped stories" (p. 44).

Other reading strategies that have been shown to be effective in helping ELLs gain academic proficiency in English include those set forth in Table 2 below.

Table 2

ELL Reading Strategies

Strategy

Description

"People Hunt"

In this strategy, each student receives a paper with a grid containing questions related to the topic. The students read questions aloud until they find someone who can answer. When a student knows an answer, he writes it in the square and signs his name. No student may sign the same paper twice. The goal is for students to share knowledge so that they have a common foundation.

"Anticipation Guide"

This approach involves the teacher presenting several sentences that relate to the upcoming lesson. Students indicate whether they agree or disagree with each sentence and explain their thinking. This is a means to assess students' prior knowledge of the topic, to introduce vocabulary, and to provide a general context for the new information.

"Word Sort"

In this strategy, ESL teachers organize students into small groups who each receive 12 to 15 words that are related to the unit studied, and the students work together to categorize the words, identify similarities and differences, and identify relationships. The objective is to have students review vocabulary and concepts and make meaning based on their prior knowledge and experience. A Think Pair Square requires students to work in pairs to decide how to explain new concepts or vocabulary.