European Muslims in the Aftermath

¶ … European Muslims in the Aftermath of 911

The impact of the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 and subsequent terrorist related events have had a profound and far - reaching impact on the situation of Muslims in Europe. The very structure of Muslim life as well as the way that they are perceived in Europe has undergone a significant change. While the integration of the Islamic religion and culture in Europe was problematic before the events of 9/11, the situation has been exacerbated by the events of 9/11 and has impacted on a variety of aspects of Muslim life.

These various aspects will be explored in this paper, as well as the changing perceptions of Muslim in Europe. An important issue is how the Muslims see themselves and their sense of identity in the aftermath of 9/11; as well as the effects that these changed perceptions have had on policy decisions and social and cultural aspects.

The central purpose in writing this paper is that the situation of Muslims in Europe, with its large Muslim population, is an indication not only of the future of Europe, but of the entire world. In other words, what happens in Europe in terms of the interaction between cultures is important for the future on an international level. The events in the Middle East that have take place after September 11, 2001 will, I believe, have profound repercussions for the future of the world and therefore, within this framework, the situation of Muslims in Europe is a critical barometer of the future.

Research methodology

The changing and contemporary nature of this topic necessitated that the most recent view and studies needed to be consulted. To this end the resources that were selected were largely from reputable Internet sites, databases and from the latest Journals and magazines. Newspapers were also a source of the latest data on the subject. However, the research methodology was aimed at collating and assessing various critical views of the situation of Muslims in Europe and was therefore focused more on assessment and debates rather than merely a collection of data. The overall research methodology was essentially to accumulate sufficient resource material that covered the topic comprehensively and then to sift through this to ascertain the predominant views and critical debates on the subject.

After this process, the most important aspects were collated and summarized as a preparation for the first draft of this paper. Only the most cogent and essential sources were cited in the body of the text to support opinions and views; while the other readings provided the foundation of this discussion.

The situation of Muslims in Europe: before and after 9/11.

One aspect that many books and studies on Islam and Europe reiterate is that "... Islam is an integral part of Europe's past and present," and that there is a long and complex interaction between the two.

The problematics of Muslims in Europe and the various areas of dissention in this regard, predate the event of 9/11. The concern among leaders and politicians in Western Europe with regard the rise of Islam, dates back to 1978 and the Iranian revolution. Since that time "...the issue of Islam and its supposed challenge to the West has become a matter of enduring international preoccupation.... "

Europe in particular has had to deal with an increasing Muslim presence. While estimates vary and there is consensus that there are no definitive numbers, there are estimated to be approximately 12.5 million Muslims live in Europe, compared with only 800-000 Muslims in 1950, and around 10 million in the U.S.

Furthermore the issue of Islam in Europe affects not only foreign policy but has become a serious domestic issue which requires solutions at both local and national levels. There is also little doubt, as the statistics point out, that there has been a rapid increase in the Muslim population in Europe. This is supported by the fact that Islam has emerged as the second religion in many European countries.

Historical antecedents

The relationship between Islam and the West can be dated to the Sixteenth Century with the start of European expansionism and the growth of European influence throughout the world. There are various historical events that can be singled out as important occurrences of Islamic and European contact and interaction: for example, the occupation of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte.

This interaction was further increased by the end of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War. This was to lead after the Second World War to the very important and contentious issue of the establishment of the Jewish home land in Palestine; an event that has resulted in conflict which still has an impact on the relationship between Muslims and Europeans today.

Large scale immigration of Muslims to Europe was to follow after the Second World War, with many Muslins coming from North Africa, Turkey and Indo-Pakistan.

Countries like Britain and France were in need of cheap industrial labor and "...turned towards their former colonies in South Asia and North Africa to fill labour shortages, while Germany invited Turkish 'Gastarbeiter' to help sustain the "Wirtschaftswunder."

There are of course many other historical events that cannot be entered into here, but the point being made is that it relatively easy to see why the Muslim population increased so rapidly in Europe. At the same time it is also easy to understand that the cultural differences between the Islamic people and European culture were to lead to a culture clash.

However what is more important is that in the decades that followed, the Muslin communities in Europe started to assume an identity which was associated with European culture. One of the central aspects that will be discussed is the effect on Muslim culture before and after September 11.

As many studies have pointed out, the extent on Muslim integration within European societies and the relationship between Muslim immigrants and these communities has not been one that could be described as positive. "Europe's track record of engagement with Islam over the last 1,350 years is not encouraging. "

Prior to September 11th there was a very cautious approach to Muslin communities and "... Europeans today seem inclined to pursue a status quo approach at home and abroad... "

This approach has not augured well in terms of the additional prejudice and discriminations that have resulted from the aftermath of recent terrorist attacks.

Furthermore, a brief consideration of the statistics and demographics relating to Muslims in Europe will also help to focus on the problematics and complexity of the present situation.

Among these are the fact that while labor immigration ended in most European countries in the 1970's, yet "...some 500,000 immigrants -- primarily family reunification cases -- and 400,000 asylum seekers arrive in western Europe each year. "

Another important fact that impacts on the situation at present, is that of the total number of Muslin who live in Europe, about fifty percent were born in European countries.

Another significant factor is that the birth rate among Muslims is at present "...more than three times that of non-Muslims, contributing to the burgeoning numbers of Muslims in Europe."

Muslims are also significantly younger in general than the non-Muslim population. This last aspect is important in the light of the pressure and prejudice brought to bear on the Muslim community in the aftermath of 9/11. As will be discussed, the tendency in Europe towards cultural prejudice and discrimination is having a decided effect on the younger population in terms of political and economic factors.

A further statistic that relates to the present precariousness of social dissent in Europe is that, "By 2015, Europe's Muslim population is expected to double; whereas Europe's non-Muslim population is projected to fall by at least 3.5%."

This in effect means that Muslims will comprise approximately twenty percent of the total European population by 2050.

2.2. The impact of 9/11

The events of September 11, 2001, have had a profound and reverberating effect on the world and far-reaching consequences for the Muslims of Europe.

As has been already mentioned above, the situation with regard to European Muslims was, in itself, problematic and complex before the events of 9/11. There were for example no coordinated and clear policy guidelines on how to deal with Muslims in Europe. There is evidence of suspicion and prejudice even before 9/11 in that the "Islamic Challenge" involved the integration of a "ghettoized but rapidly growing Muslim minority," who were seen to be encroaching upon the collective identity and public values of European society. "

This already implies that there was a sense of" the enemy in out midst" in terms of the Islamic presence in Europe. This aspect has been profoundly exacerbated by the media and public perception in the aftermath of 9/11 and other events such as the Madrid bombings.

After the events of September 11, the perceptions and prejudices about Muslims that had in many areas been nascent began to be more public and concretized. These have led to various problem areas which have had a dramatic affect on Muslim life. They include the increase in terror activities in Europe; the rise of anti-Semitism within the Muslim community and the increase in the prevalence of right - wing parties that are often violently opposed in their actions and rhetoric to Islamic fundamentalism.

A fundamental issue that should be considered in attempting to understand the impact of the events of 9/11 on Europe is that these attacks have an effect on the balance between security and civil liberties. In other words, whereas before 9/11 there had been a focus and effort to maintain equilibrium between issues of security and democratic rights for all, including Muslins; yet after 9/11 this balance was upset and the focus tended to move more towards security, with civil rights being neglected. This change in emphasis has had an effect on the situation of Muslims. "This change in balance is particularly striking for Muslims living in Europe. The securitization of European politics leads to an externalization of Muslims living in Europe." This in effect means that Muslims are seen as "outside" the system as potential terrorists or allies to the terrorists.

2.3. Prejudice and discrimination

Possibly the most and problematic aspect of the situation of Muslims in Europe is the reality of prejudice and discrimination. This facet has a long history and begins well before the events of 9/11; and in a sense the present situation of discrimination is a continuation of the past.

However the events of 9/11 have succeeded in producing a new form and intensity of prejudice towards Muslim communities, which tends to exacerbate the already prevalent discrimination in the region.

It is important to note that in this regard that after the attacks of September 11, the European Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC) issued a report which found that, "...Islamic communities have become targets of increased hostility since 11 September."

The report also found that there was in increase of the prejudice that had already existed in Europe which "fuelled acts of aggression and harassment in many European Member States." The report goes into discuss evidence of "Islamophobia" as well an increase in the suspicion of Muslim people in the region and "...increased hostility and abuse of Muslims across Europe."

In order to grasp the extent of this problem a few points may be of assistance. The neglect of the Muslim community is seen in the fact that "Few European states have gathered comprehensive data on the number and nature of the Muslim presence within their national borders. "

In fact many countries such as Belgium, Denmark, France and Greece do not allow any mention of religious in official census forms - therefore making the assessment of the Muslim population and their problems difficult. More importantly however is that in many European countries, "Muslims are an unrecognized minority, excluded from most minority rights safeguards and protection against discrimination because they do not fit national definitions of minorities."

This important aspect, prior to the events of 9/11, exacerbated the feelings of suspicion and discrimination among the Muslim population of Europe. This was of course to be worsened and increased in intensity by two factors;: namely the Palestinian question and the perception of Western support for Israel and the events of 9/11, which suggested a radicalized version of Islam that many Muslims felt to be discriminatory and unfair.

2.3.1. The media

The role of the media in promulgating a stereotypical idea of Muslins as terrorists has been the focus of numerous studies and reports. This perception has also been increased by negative public pronouncements in the media by many political and public figures, which have tended to add to these prejudicial perceptions. It was found in one report for example, that "...publicly stated attitudes of leading political figures were a factor that contributed to bringing xenophobic, racist and Islamophobic views into mainstream politics."

The ability of the media in some instances to shape public opinion and place the Muslim community in a prejudicial and negative light is a factor that can have a devastating impact on all Muslims in Europe. This has in fact happened in many instances in the aftermath of 9/11 - with a concomitant detrimental impact on the situation of Muslims in the region.

In a report by the EUMC in the 1990's it was already stated that "the mainstream press, with notable exceptions, has reproduced forms of ethnic prejudice in its routine and issue-based reporting..."

Furthermore it was also noted that many media report were "based on stereotypical simplifications:" The important aspect however is that since the events of 9/11 the amount of negative reportage has not been ameliorated but has, according to many studies, in fact increased in terms of the projection of views and opinions that that can be seen to increase prejudice and hostility.

An example of blatant prejudice after 9/11 is quoted from a report in an Italian newspaper. A journalist, Oriana Fallaci, wrote that the Italian "cultural identity cannot bear a wave of immigration made up of persons who want to change our lifestyles." He continues and states that that in Italy "there is no place for muezzins, minarets, fake teetotalers

Other reports also claim that often the media places disproportionate emphasis on Muslim extremist groups and this tends to generalize all Muslim people as having extremist views.

On the other hand, some argue that the increased press coverage of Islam after 9/11 has also had positive effects. One example given is that through this exposure, Islam has become better understood and accepted in the world.

2.3.2. Right wing groups and prejudice.

One of the alarming factors related to prejudice and an aspect that has serious consequences for the Muslim population and peaceful coexistence in Europe, is the increase of right-wing rhetoric and actions after 9/11. The events of 9/11 and later terrorist activities have provided ample ammunition for right-wing ideologists to attack Muslim groups. These groups play on the"...xenophobia and popular fears of Islam..." which is also increased by negative reports in the media. There have also been right-wing inspired efforts in many European counties to restrict immigration. Another aspect that can be related to this factor is the recent banning of headscarves in France and Germany; which serves to increase tension and the sense of isolation among the Muslim community.

2.3.3. The creation of terrorism

One of the effects of prejudice and discrimination is not only the isolation of Muslims but also the creation of an environment conducive to terrorist actions. A number on contributing factors should be borne in mind here. The first is that ethnic and religious prejudice creates a sense of desperation and unfairness in a population that has come to see itself largely as part of the European countries in which they live. Secondly, the ratio of young Muslims is very high and therefore they are more likely to be directly effected and feel disenfranchised; and more likely to take action against perceived discrimination. This has led to the suggestion that, due to the prejudice and discrimination perceived by many Muslims, Europe has in fact become a breeding ground for terrorists. This also relates to the question of a European- Muslim sense of identity which will be discussed below.

Polices and the Law

There is little doubt that in the impact of the terror attack of 9/11 has also has an impact on government and local policies towards Muslims. The public perception generated by the media will of course always play an essential part in politics and will have a concomitant effect on policies made by these elected.

While there is a strong legal framework in many European countries to ensure equality and protection against discriminatory actions and views, yet this legalization is not always implemented. "...public awareness about the legislative anti-discrimination framework is low, and existing provisions are rarely used by the most vulnerable groups, resulting in a lack of relevant case-law."

In a study of the situation of Muslims in Italy it was found that, "... Violence against immigrants, including Muslims, by both private actors and law enforcement officials is not uncommon."

Furthermore, the changes against those officials who allegedly perpetrated these crimes are often not concluded or are dropped for various reasons.

Religious intolerance

Religious intolerance on both sides of the divide is increasing in many areas of Europe. One worrying development after 9/11 is that, in the light of increased prejudice and intolerance, there has been an increase in the movement towards a more fundamentalist view of Islam among many Europeans. This has many implications, not least of which is the increase on the sense of Muslim isolation; which in turn creates further divisions between cultures, exacerbating misunderstanding and prejudice.

This increase in religiosity among Muslims can take on a negative connotation if it is linked in the public view with the rise of extremist movements. In short this prejudice and perceived discrimination can also lead to many Muslims feeling "pressurized" in a cultural sense to join extremist organizations. It should also not be forgotten that a central prejudicial factor that affects the very foundations of the Islamic predicament in the West, is that Islam as a religion has been linked by the media and through a lack of understanding, particularly after the events of 9/11, with politics and extremism. This creates a difficult situation for the ordinary Muslim in Europe who possibly feels that it is his religion as well that is being discriminated against.

Economic prejudice and related factors

Prejudice on the social and cultural levels translates into prejudice in terms of economics and work opportunities. Many Muslims in Europe are of the opinion that discrimination in the work place is directly linked to other forms of discrimination against Islam. This discrimination can effect employment, housing etc. This again results in the withdrawal of the Muslin from the society into the relative safety of his own cultural group.

In many case the unemployment rate among the Muslim sector of the population is double that of the non-Muslim population, mainly due to prejudice and discrimination.

Furthermore, it is generally reported that, "Educational achievement and skill levels are relatively low, participation by Muslim women in the workforce is minimal, opportunities for advancement are limited, and biases against Muslims are strong"

Anotther report on this subject states that, "Rootlessness is compounded by economic struggle. On the whole, Muslims in Europe are far more likely to be unemployed than non-Muslims."

An alarming statistic in this regards is that while 60% of Muslims in Britain are categorized as poor, the national poverty average is only 28%

2.4. Muslim identity

Possibly the most complex and important aspect relating to the situation of Muslins in Europe is the issue of identity.

As has been pointed out, about fifty percent of Muslims in Europe were born in the region. The majority of Muslims are therefore not immigrants but feel they are Europeans in a very real sense. This creates a central dilemma for the European Muslin in that they define their identity in terms of both location and religion. This dilemma and struggle in the Muslim consciousness is made even more complicated by the aftermath of prejudice that has resulted from 9/11; which has the effect of isolating and not integrating the Muslim in Europe. This turn creates a situation of tension and instability which often has the result of ostracizing the individual.

There are many other related issues that compound the problem of identity. One is the fact that while most Muslims wish to be integrated into European culture and society, there are also many who do not want to be assimilated and lose their culture and heritage.

The youth, who now make up the majority of Muslims in Europe, find themselves in a situation of cultural and identity crisis. They are caught between their traditions and the culture of their parents and European culture. However, the effect of recent world events has worsened their situation and they find themselves in counties "...which either refuses to accept them as bona fide members of society or -- often -- actively discriminates against them on the basis of their "otherness."

Conclusion

The above research uncovers only some of the complexity of the Muslim situation in Europe. What is very evident in the literature and reports is that the events of 9/11, as well as subsequent terrorist attacks, have tended to create a stereotypical image of the Muslim individual which, through the media and other avenues, has been projected as a representation of the culture and people as a whole. Ironically this has also been applied to those Muslims who have been born and raised in European counties. This in turn has created a sense of perceived prejudice and discrimination which has had the effect of isolating and creating a sense of anger and indignation among many of the Muslim Youth.

These factors have also complicated the situation of Muslims with regard to their search fro identity as both Muslims and Europeans. There is little doubt that this scenario does not bode well for the future. However, various institutions and agencies throughout Europe are attempting to rectify and ameliorate the situation. Some critics in fact see the future in a more positive light in that they believe that a new form of Muslim identity will eventually develop, which will be more integrated with the European society and culture. However, as Salih states, "...with over 25 million Muslims present in East and West Europe, there is a desperate need for Muslims across Europe to have a voice within the European structures and also to meet to co-ordinate and co-operate. In other words, this view clearly points to the crucial fact that unless there is more perceived integration and unless Muslim are allows a greater "voice" in European culture and affairs, the present process of division and misunderstanding might progress to its obvious conclusion.