Middle School Math Teachers Over

¶ … Middle School Math Teachers

Over the last several years, the U.S. has been consistently underperforming the rest of the world, in mathematics in comparison with other countries on the middle school level. A good example of this can be seen by looking no further than a study that was conducted by the U.S. Department of Education. They found that the United States was underperforming several different developed countries. To include: Great Brittan, France, Australia, New Zealand, Finland and Switzerland. While at the same time, it was performing better than many of the developing OECD nations to include: Brazil, Greece, Luxembourg, Mexico, Latvia and Portugal. This is significant, because it is showing how the U.S. is losing their competitive advantage in comparison with many developed countries. While simultaneously, this is illustrating how the nation is maintaining their lead in comparison with the developing world. This is troubling, because it means that the U.S. must take some kind of drastic action to reverse what has been happening. ("Elementary and Secondary Education," 2004)

As a result, many different states have been implementing bold new initiatives to deal with these issues and improve the overall level of performance. In the case of Kentucky, they have been engaging in a number of programs to tackle these challenges. The most notable is the Common Core State Standards. This was developed as part of an effort to help teachers ensure that students are meeting select standards for middle school mathematics. ("Frequently Asked Questions," 2011) The way that this is accomplished is through establishing select criteria that will help to improve the student performance in specific areas to include: geometry / measurement, computation, algebraic ideas and probability / statistics. These different elements are significant, because they are showing how this criterion is being utilized to create new standards in improving mathematics comprehension in middle school students around the world. ("Diagnostic Mathematics Assessment," 2011)

This is necessary, because in the 21st century more people will need to be able to have a better understanding of changes in technology and there are increased amounts of specialization (thanks in part to globalization). Evidence of this can be seen with the NAEP, as it is highlighting how they are taking more rigorous subjects in mathematics. Yet, the fact of the matter is these results are mixed at best. Where, they found that nearly 52% of 17-year-olds have completed the highest levels of math at no more than a pre-algebra course. This is in contrast to just 19% of these students finishing some form of pre-calculus. This is important, because it is highlighting how there a number of issues that are affecting the ability of students to understand a wide variety of mathematical ideas. At the middle school level, this is sign of failure of the current approach, with most students having a no background or the desire to go to the next level in their studies. (Boyd, 2009)

The TMISS, AIR, PISA and Carnegie Report show that the underlying trends in the achievement of American students is lower in comparison with many developed and developing nations. As these different reports are highlighting how U.S. middle school students are performing at the lower end of the spectrum in comparison with many of their counterparts in these nations.

A good example of this can be seen with the TMISS. In studies that were taken between 1995 and 2003, they found that American eight grade students performed at a lower end of the spectrum in comparison with other OECD and developed nations. While only a minority, were performing at the higher end of the spectrum in comparison with these different countries. This is problematic, because it is indicating that the status quo is not working. As, the underlying trends are continuing to remain stagnant, despite the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act. ("No Country Left Behind," 2011)

As a result, the root causes of the problem begin with the students having a lack of in depth knowledge. However, when you look at what is happening a little further, it is obvious that teachers needs to be more effective at reaching out to them. Evidence of this can be seen with observations that were taken from a study conducted by Hristovitch (n.d.). She observed that pedagogical content knowledge was essential in helping to improve the students understanding of various mathematical concepts. With the report saying, "The research findings point out that sequencing appropriately and connecting mathematical ideas appeared to be a serious challenge for the teachers. We propose that professional development programs should be focusing on making the teachers knowledge of mathematical ideas more explicit by fostering proofs, argumentation, and reasoning with symbols." (Hristovitch, n.d.) This important, because it is showing a new approach must be taken that will provide students with a basic understanding of various ideas being presented (content knowledge) and having effective follow up with each individual student (pedagogical).

To corroborate these ideas, Hill (2005) determined that, "The educators mathematical knowledge was significantly related to student achievement gains in both first and third grades after controlling student- and teacher-level covariates. This result, while consonant with findings from the educational production function literature, was obtained via a measure focusing on the specialized mathematical knowledge and skills used in teaching mathematics. This finding provides support for policy initiatives designed to improve mathematics achievement by augmenting the teachers' mathematical knowledge." (Hill, 2005, pp. pp. 371 -- 406) This is significant because, it is showing how these findings are illustrating that a new approach must be taken to help improve middle school student achievement through using pedagogical content knowledge. As, educators are playing a critical role in: the overall amounts of learning comprehension that is occurring with the students in their class.

Study Rationale

Overview

Over the years, there have been a number of different approaches utilized to help improve student achievement in mathematics. However, despite the implementation of new programs the NAEP, TMISS, AIR, PISA and Carnegie Report are all illustrating that some kind transformation needs to occur in how educators are interacting with students. The study that we will be undertaking is going to identify specific techniques that can be used to help improve the overall amounts of learning comprehension. This will provide precise solutions that educators and administrators can embrace to increase the overall quality of education that is being provided. Once this occurs, we will be introducing possible solutions that can be used to address the various educations gaps with the current policy. This is the point that we can start to have an impact on reversing these underlying trends.

In this chapter, we will examine the rationale of the study and how it will help to prepare teachers as well as students for these challenges. To achieve any kind of improved performance standards we must take a two part strategy. The first part will involve looking at how teachers can be better prepared to help students to be successful, while at the same time we examine how to prepare pupils for the challenges that they will face in the future.

Professional Development

To improve professional teacher development there are three main categories that we will focus on to include: pedagogical content, pedagogical and content knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge is when you are looking at specific mathematical concepts to: provide a detailed understanding of how the various principals work and what specific areas need to be addressed to increase their understanding of these ideas. Pedagogical is when you are studying how students are: comprehending the ideas that were presented in class. Content knowledge is when you are showing the students the different ways mathematical concepts work. This is accomplished through: providing working examples and carefully explaining each step (in an entertaining format). These different elements are important, because they are used together to establish pedagogical concept knowledge (PCK) by combining all of them to have a greater understanding of the ideas. At the same time, it is ensuring that the educator has a way of effectively reaching out to each student. (Hall, 2009, pp. 68-71)

Student Development

Effective student development is based upon integrating the different PCK principals together to improve the student's understanding of the material. This is accomplished by looking at: common content knowledge and specialized content knowledge. Common content knowledge is when you are using basic mathematical principals to provide a foundation for the student to have an understanding of these ideas. Specialized content knowledge is when you have the student learn more advanced mathematical concepts. In this case, these two elements will mean the teacher is providing the student with content knowledge that is establishing a foundation for learning.

To ensure that the students comprehend these different ideas, you would then use different pedagogical techniques. This is accomplished through examining how they understand them to include: examining the specific student's knowledge of the subject and ensuring that any kind of strategy is in compliance with various state standards.

Evidence to support these findings can be found by looking no further than observations from Shulman (1986) who said, "These would assess the knowledge of general pedagogy, learners, their backgrounds, principals of school organization, finance / management, the historical and social / cultural foundations of education among many more. These exams would also tap teaching performance and other capabilities unlikely to be adequately assessed using conventional paper along with pencil instruments." (Shulman, 1986, pp. 4 -- 14)

These different elements are important, because they are providing a foundation for helping the schools to become more competitive in mathematics. As, they are working together to create a basic standard for: improving learning comprehension and provide the ability to solve more complex issues. Over the course of time, this will help to increase the student's ability to understand a wide variety of concepts. This is the point that they will be more prepared to deal with the various challenges that they are facing in the 21 century. Once this occurs, it will help them to establish a foundation for adapting to the changes that they will have to deal with from: shifts in technology and through these transformations because of globalization.

To corroborate these finding with one another Ball (2008) had similar kinds of observations. As, the author believes that Shulman is providing a basic foundation for improving the student's understanding of different mathematical concepts. They found, that there were a number of similar approaches and trends that must be embraced to help dramatically improve learning comprehension. Evidence of this can be seen with Ball saying, "These lines of research indicate at least two empirically discernable subdomains within pedagogical content knowledge (knowledge of content and students and knowledge of content and teaching) and an important subdomain of 'pure' content knowledge unique to the work of teaching, specialized content knowledge, which is distinct from the common content knowledge needed by teachers and non-teachers alike. The next steps needed are to develop a useful theory of content knowledge for teaching." (Ball, 2008, pp. 389 -- 407) This is important, because it is indicating that there is support for the idea that PCK can help to improve middle school students learning comprehension when it comes to mathematics.

Yet, when you look beyond these kinds of generalizations, it is clear that there has been a lack of research in seeing how to effectively implement this kind of model on the middle school level. Part of the reason for this, is because no one has assessed the relationship between knowledge and PCK. Our study will seek to address these different gaps between the various theories and how to effectively implement this kind of protocol in the real world. At the same time, we will examine various techniques and tactics that can be used to help improve the overall amount of understanding of the different mathematical concepts. Once this occurs, it will provide specific insights about how to effectively address these challenges and create a workable strategy that will deal with the underlying problem.

To achieve this objective we will be taking an all-encompassing approach. Where, we will look at the total impact of this new philosophy through looking at: the DOK and PCK models. This will be accomplished by examining the relationship of the middle school teacher to be able to: understand math content knowledge, the ability to problem solve / reason, memorize, comprehend and establish pedagogical knowledge. This will help to improve the educator's ability to know and apply various concepts that are directly related to some of the numerous ideas in mathematics (i.e. their familiarity with numbers and algebra).

These different elements are important, because they are showing that the rationale that we will be using to understand these concepts will be based upon: looking at how the educator can have a direct impact on student performance. Once this occurs, we can begin to theorize about how we can be able to increase the overall amounts of learning comprehension in mathematics on the middle school level. This will allow us to address the various gaps and it will identify how we can create a workable solution to improve the students understanding of various facts.

Evidence of this can be seen with observations from a report released by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. They found that changing and improving upon the approach that is being used by the teachers. will help to produce a number of significant long-term benefits for the student. With the report saying, "Teachers have more of impact on student learning than any other factor controlled by school systems, including class / school size and the quality of after-school programs. But currently, there is no agreement among education stakeholders about how to identify and measure effective teaching." ("Content Knowledge for Teaching," 2010) This is significant because, it is illustrating how educators must improve the tactics they are using to reach out to students. At the same time, there needs to be a workable solution to increase the ability to measure effective teaching. Once this takes place, it means that the student will begin to more effectively focus and comprehend the various ideas that are being presented.

This is the point that the educator can begin to have an actual strategy in place that will increase the total amounts of learning comprehension in relation to: their poor academic performance on this level. As, a wide variety of reforms have attempted to address these issues, yet they continue to fall short of providing some kind evidence that they are effectively reversing these trends. This is problematic, because the use of algebra is a major determining factor as to how successful someone will be later on life.