Improvement of Education in Developing Countries: Case

¶ … IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: Case study: GHANA EDUCATION SYSTEM

RESEARCH FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:

GHANA EDUCATION SYSTEM

The need for improvements in the educational system in Ghana today is greater than ever before, but there are some sophisticated research methods available that can help educational reformers in Ghana accomplish these important goals. In order to determine which research approach is superior for this purpose, or combination of methodologies, an understanding of what is involved in the Ghanaian educational system is in order. In terms of educational expansion as measured by the enrollment of both male and female school age children at all levels, virtually all African countries have accomplished remarkable results since the 1960s and 1970s, yet profound problems remain (Assie-Lumumba, 2000). According to Morrison (2001), the level of education provided to young children in Ghana today is a direct legacy of many events that relate to the country's colonial past and subsequent independence. For example, in 1957, Ghana became the first West African country to receive its independence from colonial rule; further, during the early years of its independence, the government recognized the importance of education during the early years in the lives of Ghanaian children. Further, in 1989, Ghana became the first country to ratify the United Nations' Rights of the Child; later, in 1998, the government passed The Children's Act (Act 560), which added additional strength to the laws on children's rights, justice, and welfare (Morrison, 2001).

Today, almost half of Ghana's 19.5 million citizens are younger than 15 years and the most recent census data reported that about 16.5% of the population is under the age of 6 years; unfortunately, there remains a paucity of educational services for students across the board, but the need is most severe for very young children, a problem that is even worse in most rural areas of the country. In fact, today, just 12% or so of the nation's very young children have access to early care and education (Morrison, 2001), and the literacy rate (defined as those age 15 years and over who can read and write) for the total population of Ghana is just 74.8% (82.7% and 67.1% for males and females respectively) (Ghana, 2005). Nevertheless, this literacy rate is still one of the highest in tropical Africa today, and again, by comparison, Ghana has a better educational system than any of its immediate neighbors; this achievement has been enormously costly though.

This is not to say, though, that the educational legacy of Ghana is recent; indeed, the first recorded educational program for children in Ghana was the Elmina Castle School founded in 1745; however, beginning in 1823, Western missionaries began a program of proselytization in an effort to convert the native Ghanian population to Christianity. Much like the problems facing the country in the 21st century, the colonial Ghanaian government also lacked sufficient resources to fund a national system of education and turned over the responsibility for education to these Christian missionaries, a responsibility they readily embraced for they believed it was in keeping with their theological tenets (McWilliam, 1959 cited in Morrison, 2001). According to this author, the first mission on record was the Basel Mission Society; this facility featured some kindergartens that were offered with the "primary one classes" (these are the Ghanaian equivalent to first grade classes in the United States) by 1843 (Morrison, 2001).

Following their independence from the UK in 1957, Ghana reassumed responsibility for its national education system through the passage of the Education Act of 1961; this act made preschools the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. Thereafter, any Ghanaian facility that offered an educational program for young children (with or without fees) was required to register with the Ministry; this Act also established free basic compulsory education for children beginning with primary 1 (age 6 years) through to primary 6 (Morrison, 2001). This system was introduced in April 1974, when the Ghanaian government began implementation of a new educational system comprised of a pre-primary cycle for ages 4 to 6 years; a basic first cycle, including six years of primary education and three years of junior secondary; and a second cycle of variable length. The second cycle is followed by secondary vocational or commercial programs or, in the alternative, to senior secondary university preparatory courses or other third-cycle courses in high-level polytechnics and specialized institutions (Boateng & Fage, 2005).

According to Ernest Amano Boateng and John D. Fage (2005), the first educational cycle is both free and compulsory; during the first three years, educational services are delivered in the predominant local language, with provision for education in at least one other Ghanaian language and English, the latter being the language of instruction from the fourth year of the primary cycle (Boateng & Fage, 2005). In addition, teacher training and technical education are approximately comparable to secondary education; however, these facilities tend to attract students who are not planning on attending a university. Today, university education is provided at three primary Ghanaian institutions:

1.

The University of Ghana at Legon. This university is located near Accra, and was established as a university college in 1948 and granted full university status in 1961.

2.

The University of Science and Technology at Kumasi. This institution was established in 1951 and was granted full university status in 1961; the Tarkwa School of Mines is affiliated with the University of Science and Technology and offers diploma courses in mining and related subjects.

3.

The University of Cape Coast. This university was established in 1962 specifically for the training of science teachers and was afforded full university status in 1972 (Boateng & Fage, 2005).

All of these institutions are financed by the government; in fact, there are no private universities in Ghana today (Boateng & Fage, 2005).

Cost-saving initiatives that affected social expenditures during the late 1980s resulted in drastic reductions in student subsidies for food and accommodation in third-cycle institutions, but enrollment in all schools, particularly in secondary schools, has increased significantly since Ghana achieved independence (Boateng & Fage, 2005). For instance, there are a number of private schools at both elementary and secondary levels today; however, the number of available places in second- and third-cycle institutions, particularly in universities, remains far short of the demand from qualified applicants. "Despite the heavy national expenditure on education and the large school population, Ghana still has a relatively low literacy level by world standards. Thanks to the extensive use of the sound and visual media, however, illiteracy is not as serious a handicap as it formerly was. English is widely spoken, especially in the urban areas" (emphasis added) (Boateng & Fage, 2005, p. 17). To help address the lack of educational services in the country's rural areas, Maria Gonzalez de Asis (2005) reports that a recent initiative by the World Bank entitled, "Africa Good Governance on the Radio Waves," is designed to support local government capacity building and community empowerment by establishing radio links with outlying regions. The program is in place throughout Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda and was implemented July 14, 2005; the enterprise represents the most recent joint program between the Municipal Development Partnership for Eastern and Southern Africa (MDP-ESA) and the World Bank Institute (WBI), who are strategic partners with national associations of local governments in the participating countries. According to Gonzalez de Asis, "The program is transmitted by First Voice International via digital radio, reaching a large number of participants in rural and urban areas in these countries" (p. 2). In addition, Ghana has partnered with the World Bank-sponsored Inter-Agency Commission to:

1.

Assist in the enhancement of country research capacity and application.

2.

Collaboratively design and implement classroom research at the primary school level.

3.

Link findings to practice and policy at various levels (from classrooms to national ministries) of the educational systems (Adams, Clayton, Ginsburg, Mantilla, Sylvester & Wang, 2000).

In spite of these early and ongoing initiatives, and the promises represented by emerging computer-based technologies though, political instability in the ensuing years has drained the nation of valuable resources that were not invested in the nation's educational infrastructure. The country still enjoys a per capita output that is twice that of its immediate neighbors, and recent initiatives targeted at social programs may provide even more assistance in the long-term; however, the need for improvements today is urgent and the longer it takes policymakers to find solutions for the wide range of problems facing them, the more difficult it will be to solve them. Furthermore, an entire generation of Ghanian children will suffer the consequences of these delayed decisions and the country can reasonably be expected to continue to suffer a dismal literacy rate by world standards with the implications this carries for its young citizens. Just as an understanding of the country's educational legacy and the current problems it faces is important to this study, the terminology commonly used in the investigation must be operationalized; these definitions are provided below.

Research Question Terminology. On the one hand, populations are far too diverse to suggest that a one-size-all approach would fit all of them; on the other hand, in many instances, research with these groups is no different from that with any other group (Darlington & Scott, 2002). Although there a numerous research methodologies available to social researchers today, virtually all of them employ comparable terminology in their definitions and applications that can also be applied to the instant investigation (Neuman, 2003). For the purposes of this study, then, the following definitions will be used:

1.

Participant-Observation. This term is frequently used as an umbrella term by social researchers and ethnographers to refer to all qualitative data-gathering techniques (Anzul, Ely, Friedman, Garner, & Steinmetz, 1991); however, for the purposes of this study, this term follow the meaning provided by Collins and O'Brien (2003): "By engaging in participant observation, the ethnographer hopes to understand in greater depth what it feels like and means to be a native. It provides what Clifford Geertz has called the ethnographic authority of 'being there'" (p. 258).

2.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research can be defined as the "search for meaning and understanding [with] the researcher as the primary instrument of data collection and analysis; it is an inductive analysis process and [provides] a product that is a rich description of the phenomenon" (Chapman, 2002 p. 15).

3.

Quantitative Research: Neuman (2003) reports that quantitative research results in information that can be quantified.

4.

Survey/Questionnaire. For the purposes of this study, these terms will be used interchangeably; according to Neuman (2003), survey research is "quantitative social research in which one systematically asks many people the same questions, then records and analyzes their answers" (p. 546).

Each of these research methodologies will be discussed further below, following a description of the study's primary aims and objectives.

Aims and Objectives. Complex problems require complex solutions, and the problems facing the Ghanaian government and educational policymakers at all levels are truly profound. Because resources by definition are scarce, it is vital to identify the most efficacious research methodologies that will provide these officials with the information they need to make informed and timely decisions with the resources that are available. Therefore, the aims and objectives of this study will be three-fold:

1.

To identify which qualitative and quantitative research approach, or combination of approaches, including interviews, surveys, participant-observation or other field research techniques, is best suited for the Ghanaian setting in terms of infrastructure, current needs and abilities, as well as future requirements;

2.

To determine what constraints will need to be overcome in order to implement these research methodologies on a national basis; and,

3.

What cultural factors must be taken into account when selecting a research methodology for application to the Ghanaian educational system today?

Methodology -- Research Structure.

1.

Participant-Observation. As noted above, this type of research can embrace a wide range of techniques, and Anzul and her colleagues suggest that virtually everyone does this type of research on a personal level on a daily basis. Because participant-observation research can provide an enormously robust set of data, sorting out what is important becomes essential to make this methodology effective.

A number of experts have suggested that most best approach when conducting participant-observation research is to use a step-by-step approach to ensure that nothing important is missed in the process. According to Anzul et al., these research stages move from an introductory, general overview with a broad focus, to a more narrow one in which the researcher seeks to examine very specific aspects of the situation that have been identified during the research process as being important; the authors also point out that this is an iterative process that requires an ongoing examination of the accumulated data. In this regard, the authors note that:

It is true that no one can record everything in the broad focus stage. But then, it is not such a bad idea to go in with the idea of trying. Because this is so, you should plan to observe and write about as much as possible and not waste your time fussing about whether something seems trivial or important. The seemingly most mundane happening may be crucial in hindsight. In any case, it is impossible at the very beginning to judge whether what seems trivial or important is really so in the larger, longer scheme of things. Keep writing. Keep listening and looking. (p. 43)

The steps outlined in Table 1 below were identified as being a useful approach to applying participant-observation techniques to a wide range of settings; adopted from Spradley (1980, p. 78), the table lists nine major dimensions of social situations that might be used in the beginning phase to pose questions and guide observations:

Table 1. Questions to guide initial participant-observation research.

1

Space:

the physical place or places;

2

Actor:

the people involved;

3

Activity:

a set of related acts people do;

4

Object:

the physical things that are present

5

Act:

single actions that people do;

6

Event:

a set of related activities that people carry out;

7

Time:

the sequencing that takes place over time;

8

Goal:

the things people are trying to accomplish;

9

Feeling:

the emotions felt and expressed.

Source: Spradley, 1980 cited in Anzul et al., 1991 pp. 48-9.

Furthermore, in terms of understanding the challenges faced by Ghanaian educators and policymakers today, participant-observation appears to represent an effective research methodology. According to Weisfeld (1992), "fieldwork seems especially well suited to the study of adolescence" (p. 180) and, "The fieldwork tradition of the Chicago school of sociology was developed largely through research on adolescent populations" (pp. 180-1). Of all the research methodologies under consideration here, participant-observation involves the most effort on the part of the researcher, is most likely the most time-consuming and requires an enormous investment in resources in terms of both time and money.

In this regard, Collins and O'Brien, point out that, "The hallmark of ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation is the standard methodological technique employed, whereby to the extent welcomed by informants and made practical by circumstances, an ethnographer lives in and experiences directly the life and culture being studied" (p. 258). Nevertheless, based on the ability of the social researcher to gain insights and feedback from stakeholders that might not otherwise be available, this research methodology should receive special consideration in any social research enterprise.

2.

Qualitative Research: According to Neuman (2003), qualitative research seeks to "capture and discover meaning once the researcher becomes immersed in the data. Concepts are in the form of theories, motifs, generalizations, and taxonomies. Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and one often specific to the individual setting or researcher. Research procedures are particular, and replication is very rare" (p. 145). In the instant investigation, then, qualitative research would seek to identify what aspects of the Ghanaian educational system are viewed as the most critical to providing its students with the fundamental educational components that they will need to succeed in their personal and professional lives; these techniques could include personal or telephonic interviews (Goldstein & Day, 2005), or any other research methodology involving a subjective component (Darlington & Scott, 2002).

Social researchers have used qualitative research methodologies to investigate educational issues in the past, but unlike their quantitative counterparts discussed further below, such investigations are generally more focused in scope and do not seek to discover a "big truth" about a given phenomenon; for example: "Qualitative researchers aspire to enrich the human discourse," Geertz (1973) advised, "by providing interpretations -- or partial accounts -- of certain matters. They generally do not strive to discover an objective 'Truth' that, given the appropriate sample, control, and method, is generalizable to a larger population" (p. 37). Finally, qualitative research methodologies may be particularly well suited for some specific aspects of identifying a social trend, simply because there are strictly human considerations involved that only humans can relate to rather than a quantifiable expression of statistical findings. In this regard, Hatch (1995) advises, "Qualitative research is based on the assumption that social phenomena are dynamic; they change over time because human behavior is both unpredictable and at least partially shaped by the free will of social agents" (p. 48).

3.

Quantitative Research: In sharp contrast to qualitative research, quantitative research is designed to "test a hypothesis that the researcher begins with. Concepts are in the form of distinct variables and measures are systematically created before data collection begins and are standardized" (Neuman, 2003 p. 145). Typical quantitative research methodologies include meta-analyses of extant studies; however, Neuman also notes that meta-analyses can also be qualitative based, but these require extensive study design considerations to ensure reliability and validity, and replicability in such qualitative enterprises is extremely difficult. Quantitative research is particularly useful for identifying macrotrends based on extant data, a fact that is particularly attractive when resources are scarce (Neuman, 2003).

This aspect of quantitative research was used by Assie-Lumumba (2000), to conduct an analysis of African countries to determine the correlation between depressed economies and declines, stagnations or slow increases in enrollment rates; unfortunately, a basic constraint to this approach identified by this researcher was the paucity of reliable quantitative data on many African nations, but recent initiatives by the World Bank and others have helped fill in many of the missing gaps in recent years. "However," Assie-Lumumba notes, "it should be added that the [quantitative] analysis of the fragile and dependent African economies helps contextualize the significance of the data and provide complementary information for a more comprehensive understanding" (emphasis added) (p. 89). Therefore, depending on the research setting and the needs of the researcher, quantitative research methodologies represent a viable approach; however, both qualitative and quantitative data can be captured using surveys and questionnaires, as discussed further below.

4.

Survey/Questionnaire. Just as everyone engages, to some extent, in participant-observation in their day-to-day routine, everyone -- even social researchers -- can become so accustomed to one research methodology that they may miss opportunities to gain new insights or explore new tangents because of a sense of complacency. In this regard, a well-designed survey methodology can help focus the researcher's attention on the specific issues under consideration because the results tend to speak for themselves, particularly as they relate to quantifiable research.

For example, Denscombe (1998) points out that, "We all have conversations and it is likely that most of us do not have too much difficulty with them ... The researcher can be lulled into a false sense of security. The superficial similarity can encourage a relaxed attitude to the planning, preparation and conduct of the method that would be unlikely were it to involve questionnaires or experiments" (p. 110). In this regard, surveys could be used to determine the extent of the digital divide in Ghana as it applies to rural vs. urban settings, as well as to the country compared to its immediate neighbors, the continent of Africa as a whole, and the international community as well.