Deviance Chiricos, T., Barrick, K.,

¶ … Deviance

Chiricos, T., Barrick, K., Bales, W., & Bontrager, S. (2007). The labeling of convicted felons and its consequences for recidivism. Criminology, 45(3), 547-581. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61657852?accountid=13360

The authors in this study apply labeling theory to the study of convicted felons. The main research question they ask is whether labeling of convicted felons has an effect on subsequent recidivism. They also ask whether subsequent recidivism of convicted felons may be affected by either adjudication or the withholding of it. Then they examine whether any of the characteristics such as sex, race, prior record, and the characteristics of the county to which the sentenced defendants return may have any effect on labeling effects on recidivism. The authors discuss recent theory and research and use the data compiled from the cases of 95,919 men and women from Florida who were found guilty of a felony (violent, property, or drug) and sentenced to probation between 2000 and 2002. 71,548 of the offenders examined were male and 24,371 were female. The dependent variable of the research depended on whether a felony probationer was convicted of another felony within 2 years after being sentenced. These included only those who were convicted guilty of another felony, but not those who violated technical details of probation and those who were charged but acquitted. The primary independent variable was whether a probationer had a felony adjudication applied or withheld. The defendants' race and prior record were also examined, while the crimes committed were categorized as violent, property, or drug related because of the prior research suggesting that violent offenders were least likely to recidivate. Their three main findings were the following: the application of adjudication significantly increased the likelihood of recidivism in comparison to those whose adjudication was withheld. The effects were also higher for whites than for non-whites and for females than to males. Those reaching the age of 30 without prior record of felony were also more likely to recidivate than those who had been convicted until 30, while community-level contexts had no noticeable effect on recidivism.

Petrocelli, M., Piquero, a.R., & Smith, M.R. (2003). Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(1), 1.

The authors in this article examine whether police traffic stop, search, and arrest practices are affected by racial and socioeconomic factors among the neighborhoods. The previous research on the subject examined multiple states and cities to understand whether police treatment of Whites and minorities differed (macro-level studies), but Petrocelli, Piquero, & Smith (2003) used data collected by the Richmond, Virginia Police Department to examine racial profiling on a micro level. The authors examined whether neighborhood contexts, as opposed to state and city contexts, had any effect on police treatment of minorities. They also tested the validity of conflict theory. While thirty percent of the sworn officers in Richmond were Black, seventy percent were White, three percent belonging to members of other races. Women constituted thirteen percent of the personnel. Data collected by officers' mobile data computers between 17 January 2000 and 31 March 2000 were used in the study. Consistent with the conflict theory, the authors tested whether racial and socioeconomic variables increased the likelihood of traffic stops, traffic stops resulting in search, and traffic stops resulting in summons of arrest. Ordinary least squares regression was used as the primary analytic tool to test the hypotheses. The research led to mixed results, challenging and confirming some of the hypotheses of conflict theorists. Traffic police of Richmond, Virginia were more likely to stop suspects in areas of high crime, regardless of race or socioeconomic factors. Traffic stops resulting in search, however, disproportionately targeted Black citizens than Whites. But the arrest summons resulting from traffic stops were lower for Blacks. The authors explain that police officers may not be aware of the citizen's race while stopping but are more likely to search Black citizens because of common perceptions in the neighborhood. But the arrest rates for Blacks are lower because of the lack of evidences police officers can find through searches.

Vowell P, May D. Another Look at Classic Strain Theory: Poverty Status, Perceived Blocked Opportunity, and Gang Membership as Predictors of Adolescent Violent Behavior. Sociological Inquiry [serial online]. Winter2000 2000;70(1):42-60. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 13, 2012.