Research methods and statistics

¶ … Statistics

In every aspect and concept of non-fictional writing and literature there exists a potential for inaccurate or misleading information that may hinder the objective or desired attainment outlined within their contexts. With this existent potential, it is imperative to regard non-fictional literature for its credibility in the use of common and available research methods, which validate the extent of its reasoning and overall accuracy.

Common and available research methods are as abundant as literature itself, though a similarity of function lies within each directive. In the classification of school counseling literature, such as periodicals, outlines, articles, and other informative writing, much the same is applied. Within this report, the context of all such will be detailed according to their prevalence and gestured relation to school counseling.

School counseling falls into a very broadly encompassing section of counseling altogether. The notions correlated to counseling are often most inclined by statistically and previously proven methods of conducting the specific counseling type. As such methods incorporate a degree of opinion or preference, it is important to question and dissect the reliability of any conceptualized literature pertaining to counseling in order to verify its validity.

Dissecting any literature and writing pries into the methods of research used by the author, and also by the reader in their process of verifying the information provided. The objective of this report is to underline and determine the analysis process of such applications within the literature and writings as contained within the category of school counseling.

Common Research Terms:

vast array of commonly associated research terms apply to much of the conveyance of school counseling concepts, and subsequently, to the verification of such concepts. The following is a list of such research terms and their connotations to school counseling:

Common Research Terms:

Adverse Effect = the undesired and unintended, but not necessarily unexpected, result of therapy or other intervention (UP, 2002). This term may apply directly to the results found through trial and error in student counseling. The adverse effect may be documented or published in order to serve as a guide or teaching outline for school counselors.

Assurance = a proper or formally written statement that is submitted to a federal agency attesting to the accuracy and compliance of an institution's applicable rules for governing research with human subjects (UP, 2002). This term is significant if found in within a research or survey poll taken and published in any literature or writing because it supports the validity of the subject matter. Whenever such research is conducted under the supervision or compliance of federal law, it is likely to be more accurate and therefore, more reliable information.

Autonomy = One's personal capability to consider alternate options or to make choices and act without undue influence or interference of outside subjects (UP, 2002). This term is important when applied to the subjects/students within the realm of a schools counsel. The autonomy of students can dictate the method of counsel within the school, and as such, applies directly to the confines of school counseling.

Belmont Report = a statement of basic ethical operation and principles governing the research involving human subjects issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in 1978 (UP, 2002). The Belmont Report can be attributed to several focus studies within the context of counseling. Pertaining to school counseling, some literature may provide reference to the Belmont Report in conduct of its notated research or surveying.

Case Report Forms = the study-specific forms utilized for data collection during a research trial (UP, 2002). These forms are usually listed within the reference of any non-fictional literature that utilized the specifics of such surveying and research. In connection to school counseling, the illustration or reference of these forms can also help to elaborate the indications of certain studies and surveys.

Clinical Research Associate (CRA) = an individual representative of the sponsor, and who is responsible for the accuracy and management of data and overall supervision of day-to-day activities of the study - also referred to as the monitor (UP, 2002). In the context of school counseling literature, the involvement of a CRA in the development and management proves for more solidarity in the notions of accurate research and overall validity of the content provided.

Clinical Trial = a controlled study involving people as subjects, designed to evaluate prospectively the safety and effectiveness of new drugs or devices or of behavioral interventions (UP, 2002). A clinical trial may be referenced in the context of social behavior, and such correlated to the study of students. This concept may apply or be defined through the research measures within literature pertaining to school counseling.

Cognitively Impaired = Having a psychiatric disorder, such as psychosis, neurosis, personality or behavior disorders, and elaborated to an organic impairment, such as dementia, or further as a developmental disorder, such as mental retardation (UP, 2002). Cognitively impaired subjects are a direct concern with any individual in connection with the focus of school counseling. Counselors must take the concerns for cognitively impaired subjects very seriously, and separately discerning in their regard to the counsel they provide such subjects.

Cohort = a group of subjects initially identified as having one or more characteristics in common who are followed over time (UP, 2002). This term may apply to the actual individuals or subjects defined specifically as a certain group under the contexts of school counseling, such as problem students, students with slower learning capacities, etc. The use of this term may help to provide distinctions among students/subjects in order to better address their distinctions.

Contraindicated = Pertains to the use of a treatment that should not be used in certain individuals or conditions due to risks that are disadvantageous, or that can have dangerous results (UP, 2002). This term may apply to the counseling of certain students, such as those who are significantly sensitive to certain subjects or matters. School counseling undoubtedly encompasses some level of contraindicated issues.

Data Points = Any text or numbers generated during a study (UP, 2002). Directing back to literature within the context of school counseling, the more definitive the text is in such terms, the more accurate it can be assumed. Referencing data points may provide for the elaborate nature of any referenced study or research conducted and provided within the literature.

Demographics = Demographics pertain to vital statistics, such as age, income, education, and other personal characteristics of a respondent (MDT, 2007). Demographics are directly relevant to the subject matter of school counseling in that they provide the necessary information for understanding certain approaches to the counseling of individuals or groups within a student body.

Double-blind Design = a study comparing two or more treatments in which neither the investigators nor the subjects know to which treatment group individual subjects have been assigned (UP, 2002). This term applies to the manner in which some research and study development may have been operated and later depicted in school counseling literature. The use of such comparing can help to determine necessary approaches of school counselors to certain subject situations.

Hypothesis = the proposition, to b tested statistically, about the expected outcome of the study (UP, 2002). This term applies directly to any variation of research study or survey that may be taken in the context of counseling, and therefore within school counseling it is prevalent to the nature of any such study.

Methodology = Procedure by which data is collected, such as telephone surveys, focus groups, etc. (MDT, 2007). The methodology of research and data collection as described in any literature or writing pertaining to school counseling is questionable by its method. The methodology helps to determine the validity and reliability of the provided information.

Qualitative Research = in qualitative research, one strives to understand the 'why's' of opinions and attitudes. This type of research does not provide statistics or the numbers of people that feel a certain way, but they do allow for exploration into what motivates or influences in a particular outcome (MDT, 2007). Qualitative research is very partial to the type of research conducted in terms of counseling because of the amount of opinion associated with its field. Research and study review indicated in the literature and writings under the topic of school counseling that are more saturated with this type of research should be regarded with more question toward its credibility of fact over opinion. Though opinions can be significantly correlated to school counseling approaches, the evidence provided through thorough and definitive research study of statistics is regarded for having more accurate findings.

Quantitative Research = Research where numbers can be placed with the results. This type of research allows one to determine what percentages of individuals are more inclined toward certain subjects (MDT, 2007). This type of research provides more informative matter consisting of statistical support. In any type of counseling, this type of research should incline more regard as there is more definitive approaches of distinction.

Quality Assurance = a system of activities where the purpose is to provide assurance that the overall control of quality is being effectively operated (UP, 2002). A level of quality assurance should be indicated within the confines of any study or related matter provided in literature used to inform, mimic, or develop in the means of school counseling.

Retrospective Studies = Research conducted by reviewing records or information about past events elicited through interviews with persons who have, and controls who do not have, a disease under investigation (UP, 2002). This term may apply to the study of habits or past behavior of subjects to who school counseling focus is directed. In observance of such habits and past behavior, proper and necessary approaches to certain students/subjects can effectively be taken.

Single-blind Design = Typically, a study designed in which the investigator, but not the subject, knows the treatment assigned. Occasionally, the subject, rather than the investigator, knows the assignment (UP, 2002). As in the Double-blind Design, this approach of study may be of such listed or referenced within informative literature and writing under the categories of school counseling approaches.

Therapeutic Intent = the research physicians' intent to provide some benefit to improving a subject's condition (UP, 2002). This term can obviously be implied toward the intentions of school counselors in their directives with students.

Therapeutic Research = Research involving an intervention that has the likelihood of providing a therapeutic, diagnostic or preventive benefit to the subjects (UP, 2002). As most overarching goals in counseling students is to provide benefit or furthering assistance to their future, the means of therapeutic research are evident in much of the literature and writings providing such information.

Survey Research Terms Provided by Readex Research:

Mean = "The arithmetic mean is a commonly used term and is usually the one meant when reference is made to "the average." The mean is computed merely by adding the numbers in a series and dividing the total by the number of items in the series. Adding our nine numbers and dividing by nine, results in mean of 10" (Readex, 2006). The term mean can often apply to the subject/s of counsel within school counseling. The mean or average number of students in need of financial assistance is one example of such application to school counseling.

Median = "A median is the value which lies at the middle of a distribution: that is, 50% of the values are above and 50% below. The median represents the "typical" response and is not influenced by extreme values" (Readex, 2006). The term median can often apply to the success rate of students, which helps to determine the necessity and proximately of a schools counseling efforts. A success rate can be associated to many topics, such as academic achievement, behavioral growth, test scores, etc.

Trim Mean = "This average is obtained by trimming the largest and the smallest 10% (this percentage can vary) of the numbers in a series and then calculating the arithmetic mean for the remaining numbers. The trim mean is a more conservative and stable estimate of the true population mean because it is less influenced by extreme values" (Readex, 2006). This term may be applied to the same categories or references as used in the term of mean, but will allow for a possibly more accurate calculation of the subject/s within the context of school counseling.

Sampling Error = "Maximum Sampling error (MSE) is the + figure you see associated with surveys. It is based on the number of responses the survey yields. The more responses your results are based on, the more precise those results are. Unfortunately, the relationship isn't linear, instead, in order to cut the MSE in half, you need to quadruple the number of responses. For example, you might see the following statement in a research report: "Results are subject to a maximum sampling error (MSE) of + 5% at the 95% confidence level." This MSE tells you that the chances are 95 in 100 that the results are within 5 percentage points, higher or lower, of the true percentage for the entire population" (Readex, 2006). Sampling error may be attributed to many of the research studies conducted within the school counseling field. Many surveys are utilized to determine proper or necessary methods of counsel, which may differentiate according to the type, level, or location of the school. The sampling error helps to provide clarity in the possibility of invalid or unreliable information provided through the results of such surveys.

Standard Deviation = "The standard deviation measures the variability associated with a survey's estimate of a population mean. It is analogous to the sampling error associated with percentages: that is, 95% of the time we expect the true (unknown) population mean to be within plus-or-minus two standard deviations of the mean calculated from the sample. A standard deviation that is large in proportion to the mean indicates a high level of statistical instability; trending and projections against such estimates should be undertaken cautiously" (Readex, 2006). This term is an important term when notated within the text of a survey through any publication, literature work, or writing. In correlation to school counseling, the standard deviation can help to determine the amount of significance that should be given to the survey or research poll taken regarding its subject.

Statistical information is extremely significant when considering the research and data collected and provided through literature and writings that discuss counseling. The statistical information is most often questionable to the extent of the informative methods by which the statistics are comprised. Statistics can either be an imperative or detrimental resource for the conveyance of research and study matter. They can provide helpful information depending upon their accuracy, which is dictated by the methodology used in their collection. However, statistics can be a detrimental source of information if they are inaccurate or collected in a manner of poor methodology.

The following is a list of common statistical terms and their connotations to school counseling:

Glossary of Statistical Terms as provided by U.S. National Institute of Health and Berkeley University:

Age-Adjusted Rate = "A statistical method allowing comparisons of populations that takes into account age-distribution differences between populations. Most incidence and death data in SEER are age-adjusted, although some tables, in contrast, present the crude rate. Age-adjusting takes the 2000 U.S. population distribution and applies it to other time periods under consideration. This assures that such rates do not reflect any changes in the population age distribution. Rates can be adjusted for the distribution of other characteristics such as race/ethnicity" (U.S. NIH, 2007). This term is usually only applied to medicine, but can be accounted into the measures of statistical collection for means of counseling approaches. Therefore, it is applicable to a school counseling connotation.

Annual Percentage Change (APC) = "The average annual percent change over several years. The APC is used to measure trends or the change in rates over time. The calculation involves fitting a straight line to the natural logarithm of the data when it is displayed by calendar year" (U.S. NIH, 2007). The average annual percentage change is applicable to the consideration for trend changes in student bodies. The calculation of change should be considered in the research conducted through outdated material.

Axioms of Probability = "There are three axioms of probability: (1) Chances are always at least zero. (2) the chance that something happens is 100%. (3) if two events cannot both occur at the same time, the chance that either one occurs is the sum of the chances that each occurs. For example, consider an experiment that consists of tossing a coin once. The first axiom says that the chance that the coin lands heads, for instance, must be at least zero. The second axiom says that the chance that the coin either lands heads or lands tails or lands on its edge or doesn't land at all is 100%. The third axiom says that the chance that the coin either lands heads or lands tails is the sum of the chance that the coin lands heads and the chance that the coin lands tails, because both cannot occur in the same coin toss. All other mathematical facts about probability can be derived from these three axioms. For example, it is true that the chance that an event does not occur is (100% - the chance that the event occurs). This is a consequence of the second and third axioms" (Stark, 2007). This term is very prevalent to any statistical collection, including those collected in literature and writings pertaining to counseling, or school counseling directly. This term provides the information that should be considered when evaluating and analyzing the significance of all statistical matter.

Bias = "A measurement procedure or www.berkeley.edu/~stark/SticiGui/Text/gloss.htm" estimator is said to be biased if, on the average, it gives an answer that differs from the truth. The bias is the average (www.berkeley.edu/~stark/SticiGui/Text/gloss.htm" expected) difference between the measurement and the truth. For example, if you get on the scale with clothes on, that biases the measurement to be larger than your true weight (this would be a positive bias). The design of an experiment or of a survey can also lead to bias. Bias can be deliberate, but it is not necessarily so" (Stark, 2007). Bias is an important term to remember when relating statistical information to the approaches of school counseling. It derives the significances in researching the validity of literature and writings that pertain to its study. Biased information, intentionally or not, can be damaging to the knowledge of a counselor.