Resiliency Literature Review on Resiliency This Paper

Resiliency

Literature Review on Resiliency

This paper will discus a literature review on resiliency. In order for us to better understand the contents of this research, let us first define and understand what the term resiliency means. Resiliency in this paper will be associated on matters regarding the psychological and behavioral capacity or condition of children and adolescents. Rak and Patterson (1996) in their study Promoting Resilience in At-Risk Children, indicates Hauser and his colleagues' definition of resiliency as the capacity of those who are exposed to identifiable risk factors to overcome those risks and avoid negative outcomes such as delinquency and behavioral problems, psychological maladjustment, academic difficulties, and physical complications.

The stage of adolescence is considered as the phase where the psychological and behavioral foundation of an adolescent is formed causing a large effect on his individuality in the span of his life's maturity. These foundations can be affected by the environmental origin of the adolescent and it includes his family, friends, community, and school. Experiences from the diverse environmental features of an adolescent differs, they can be positive or negative ones that in turn may cause positive or negative outcomes to his psychological and behavioral foundations. Many studies in psychology have found that adversities in a youth's life are where the framework of resiliency of an adolescent can be measured.

Researches and studies indicate that there are several mediators that can help an adolescent to overcome adversities. Structures in parenting and school counseling are among the most critical factors that are given adequate attention in the goal of supporting an adolescent to overcome adversities. Focusing on one of these structures, this paper will discuss the counseling perspectives on promoting resiliency in the context of education and school environment.

The Causes and Effects of Adversities in Adolescents

To provide a better understanding of the counseling approaches that can help adolescent students overcome adversities, it is essential to have an overview of the causes of adversities in an adolescent's life. In this way, by basing from the causes of adversities, the readers can easily see the relation and relevance of the counseling approaches provided by school support staffs and by school counseling programs.

The experience of adversities during the period of adolescence can present potential risks of developing negative outcomes to an individual. According to Garmezy & Masten, as indicated by Miller and her colleagues (1998), the possibility of developing maladjustments later in life can be augmented by exposure to multiple-risk variables.

There are quite a number of available researches and studies, that have worked on the goal of identifying risk variables that cause negative psychological and behavioral characteristics of an adolescent, have shown evidence that the features of an adolescent's environment play a major role. Miller (1998) indicated an example of which, suggesting Patterson and his colleagues' findings on parenting as critical factor in adolescents' development of antisocial behavior.

Patterson and his colleagues have identified disrupted parenting practices as critical mechanisms that predict movement through a trajectory from early disruptive, antisocial behavior to chronic offending.

Other risk factors, as indicated by Rak and his colleagues (1996), were found by Wermer in his study of 600 children. They are the following.

Perinatal problems

Socioeconomic status

Family Instability

Little educational stimulation

Poor emotional support within the family

Many studies have found these risk factors to cause stressful life events to non-resilient adolescents, which in turn cause other problems such as drug use, violence, and antisocial behavior (D'Imperio, 2000). Such problems were also found by studies to cause the low academic performance of non-resilient students and their continuous dysfunction.

Fostering Resiliency

As this research is generally based on the topic of counseling in the area of education and school environment, the following will be a discussion of topics that are associated on promoting resiliency to students, and in the context and perspectives on resiliency strategies of schools, teachers, and counselors.

How do we characterize a resilient individual? Krovetz (1999) suggested the following list of some of the usual attributes of a resilient child.

Social competence -- the ability to elicit positive responses from others, thus establishing positive relationships with both adults and peers

Problem-solving skills -- the ability to plan, based on seeing oneself in control and on being resourceful in seeking help from others

Autonomy -- a sense of one's own identity and an ability to act independently and exert some control over one's environment

Sense of purpose and future -- having goals, educational aspirations, persistence, hopefulness, and a sense of a bright future

Lewis (1999) indicates that fostering resiliency is among the important goals of school counselors and teachers. This is perhaps due to the increasing number of high school drop-outs and underachieved students who suffer from different problems (McMillan, et. al., 1994). As an approach to provide support to at-risk students, schools foster resiliency. Fostering resiliency is seen as a potential solution in eliminating problems or preventing further problems that may add up to worries of students.

Students have different personalities. As some students demonstrate, despite of the adversities that they encounter in life, they appear to have developed positive attitudes and adaptive qualities that help them cope with problems. A number of studies have shown diverse elements and interventions that schools focus on to help students learn and maintain resiliency in times of hardships in life and during the presence of at-risk factors. McMillan and Reed (1994) indicated the following four critical resiliency-related categories, which if given with sufficient attention can establish resiliency to students. These categories are important part of counseling provided by schools to foster resiliency.

Individual Attributes

Positive Use of Time

Family Factors

School Factors

How Resiliency-Related Categories Are Fostered in the Perspectives of Counseling and Education

In this section, we will discuss how the resiliency-related factors, based from McMillan and Reed's (1993) categories, can help students overcome adversities and encourage them to react positively on difficult circumstances in their lives.

Individual Attributes

The resiliency of students against negative experiences depends on their individual attributes and on the influence of people around them. Students with positive attributes tend to succeed more than those non-resilient students who demonstrate negative attributes. One of the positive characteristics of resilient students, and one of the reasons why they succeed in their endeavors, is their aspiration of attaining high achievements in education (Peng, et., al, 1992). Other positive attributes that are helpful to becoming resilient are: social competence, problem-solving skills, autonomy, and a sense of purpose and future (Bernard, 1993). In his study, Luthar (1991) also found that good interpersonal skills fosters resiliency. This may involve participation within group works that can help students learn how to relate with others (Lock & Janas, 2002).

The positive personality traits of students provide them with helpful consequences that lead to strengthening their resiliency. McMillan and Reed (1994) indicate an instance of this, showing how resiliency results from positive personality traits and positive influence of other.

Their positive attitudes are usually rewarded with helpful reactions from those around them. Thus, they come to see the world as a positive place in spite of the difficult issues with which they have to deal.

Such experience is a major factor in leading a student to aspire success in their goals. McMillan and Reed (1993) indicate that many at-risk students who are academically successful attribute their success in the self-fulfillment that they feel from gaining success.

In general, McMillan and Reed (1994) suggests that the positive attributes such as learning from failures, and gaining motivation out of failures and out of adversities in life are critical influencing factors to students' resiliency.

Positive Use of Time

Time spent in a meaningful way can help promote resiliency to students. This is one of the counseling interventions that many schools do to promote resiliency. It includes the technique of encouraging students to participate in meaningful and creative activities, which in turn can develop students' skills while promoting self-esteem. Benard (1993) indicates the following findings of Rutter on how students of a school with low delinquency rate spend their time.

Children were given a lot of responsibility. They participated very actively in all sorts of things that went on in school; they were treated as responsible people and they reacted accordingly.

Zunz and Turner (1993), in their study of promoting resiliency in an aim to prevent and treat substance abuse, also suggests that participation in social activities allows the development of sense of life's meaning, purpose, and direction to the participants. Bosworth and Earthman (2002) similarly enumerated the following evidences, as extracted from his review of literatures, that positive use of time in school and community promotes resiliency.

Rak and Patterson (1996) noted that having opportunities to be helpful to others had lasting protective effects. Gottfredsen (1986) found that students who had opportunities to share in decision making at school experienced greater expectations for educational success and a reduction in delinquent behavior. Rutter (1980) reported that students who had opportunities to participate in planning school activities demonstrated better attendance, improved achievement, and better overall behavior than did peers not having such opportunities

Family Factors

Many studies on the level of resiliency in students, based on schools' counseling perspectives, found that students' low level of resiliency is sometimes caused by problems that they encounter within their family environment. The role of counselors then, in such cases, is to act as mediator in boosting a student's resiliency through several ways. This can be done through providing counseling to both the at-risk student and parents. Schools counselors are often found to be in this situation.

Although counseling from school may not easily reduce adversities that students experience from their family environment, Pasternack and Martinez (1996) however indicate that with the help of educational programs that promote techniques on how to adapt and deal with problems, students can learn ways in applying similar techniques that will help them reduce the effect that they may experience in their family.

School Factors

There are many approaches that schools implement to foster resiliency to at-risk students. From a review of qualitative studies that McMillan and Reed (1994) had conducted, successful at-risk students have regarded the assistance of school programs, particularly the assistance of school staffs, as important factors to their success.

School is a very important source of resiliency. Rak and Patterson (1996) indicate several techniques that counselors may implement that can help develop resiliency among the youths.

A role play that assists youths in improved self-expression;

conflict resolution techniques that assist clients in working through their interpersonal struggles at home and in school;

nurturing stance by counselors that conveys to youths an unconditional positive regard, positive reinforcement, and genuine hope;

modeling the principles of a healthy self-concept to clients in counseling; peer support models; creative imagery; and bibliotherapy.

Counseling Methods and Techniques That Foster Resiliency: In Brief Building realistic techniques is the first and foremost step that counselors must take when fostering resiliency. Rak, Patterson, and Lewis (1996) indicate that solution-focused counseling provides effective and advantageous assistance to adolescents who experience adversities in life. They suggest that Solution-focused counseling is beneficial with adolescents with conduct, substance use or abuse, coping, academic, and social problems. It also has been applied with youths and adolescents struggling with loss, either separation or divorce of parents or death of a significant other.

Based on a number of literatures, researches, and studies that we have reviewed, we have found several common factors that counselors and school environments implement to promote resiliency among students. Based on the conditions of at-risk adolescents in school, and how resiliency-related factors help them achieve success, researches and studies revealed that a school environment with committed school staffs in supporting at-risk students is a major external source of resiliency.

The first element that most researches and studies reveal as among the important factors in fostering resiliency is the commitment of school staff to assist at-risk students. A caring school environment, according to Benard (1993), provides evidences of the positive traits gained by at-risk students from school. Benard (1993) cited an evidence shown by Werner in her research, suggesting that among the positive role models that students acknowledge in their lives was their favorite teacher. Aside from a caring teacher, Benard (1993) also cited Werner's finding that caring peers in school is another factor that helps promote resiliency. Such peers help at-risk students fill their needs for caring and love, which in turn also lead at-risk students to develop the same positive attitude.

A number of researches and studies also indicate the importance of providing adolescents with opportunities to participate in meaningful activities (Bosworth & Earthman, 2002). Miller and her colleagues (1998) indicate that many school programs employ cooperative learning strategies that promote students' cooperation. This strategy is one way of allowing students feel a sense of importance and meaning, thus fostering positive attitude towards a good trait of resiliency. Similarly, Hawkins and his colleagues indicate in their study that students showed academic improvements when they were made to participate in different learning activities. Moreover, Benard (1993) indicates that encouraging cooperation within students in different curriculums is one strategy employed by schools that were found to be successful in promoting and building resiliency among students.

Another technique that was found to be effective in fostering resiliency is to provide students with opportunities to engage in interpersonal relationships. Although a caring teacher and caring school peers can be among the role models of an at-risk student, it is important to note that learning how to relate with them and other individuals are essential factors to build their social relationship capabilities. Building a good sense of social bonding and interpersonal skills can help them gain a positive school environment which in turn is beneficial in the establishment of a better resiliency in them. Wycoff (1996), in her study of factors affecting the academic achievements of Mexican-American females, indicate that a weak interaction and communication between a school environment is a vulnerability factor that causes many students to fail.

There are still a number of other strategies that can be applied to foster resiliency. A considerable number of literatures and studies have already identified such strategies and techniques. From the literature review that we have conducted, we found the following methods and counseling perspectives of Lock and Janas (2002) as sensible and general strategies that can help promote resiliency.

Practice unconditional positive acceptance. Resiliency develops when situational factors connect with the personal traits of the individual. Building resiliency in a child must start early. Treating the child with unconditional positive regard will increase the likelihood that desirable character traits will be developed because it sets the stage for future decisions and shapes actions that support positive development.

Establish close, supportive relationships. Nothing replaces the security that comes from a child having a close, personal relationship with a significant adult. Moreover, it is important to have alternative caregivers who also help the child develop trust in a variety of people. A supportive web of relationships provides the child with opportunities to understand the functions, expectations, and dynamics of different relationships.

Communicate realistic standards. Paramount to constructing a framework to encourage resiliency is the need to create high, yet realistic, goals and ideals. Establish and communicate high expectations by expressing the belief that the child is capable of achieving as well as making the effort necessary to achieve goals.

Establish clear, compatible boundaries. Without boundaries, the child may lack security and a familiar point of reference. Behavioral limits and rules, two types of boundaries, are necessary so that when events do not go as planned, the child has a place to which to return in order to begin again. Depending on the child's level of development, she or he can also be involved in setting some of these benchmarks.

Use a low-criticism style of interaction. Most children respond to warm, positive instruction. By avoiding criticism, the focus is on desired behaviors, and children are more likely to take risks.

Focus on frequent, concrete praise. Acknowledging appropriate behaviors through frequent positive comments increases the likelihood that those behaviors will be repeated. Purposeful and continual feedback minimizes confusion because direct messages highlight expectations and target results.

Outline a method of reaching goals with the child. Failure and lack of success are opportunities to learn persistence and new strategies. A four-step process can be used: (a) clearly identify the goal, (b) decide on why you want to reach the goal, - clarify the appropriate line of action and generate options, and (d) take action.

Celebrate efforts. Acknowledge efforts and successes by incorporating rituals and context-specific celebrations. Individual and group celebrations are good strategies that can reinforce learning. It is also important to assist children in developing confidence in their own efforts and behaviors as they gradually learn to form goals for themselves.

Provide opportunities to defer gratification. Helping the child learn to defer gratification builds a sense of control and confidence. Flexibility is enhanced and impulsiveness is lessened when children learn to delay gratification.

Teach survival and life skills. A part of overall competency is the mastery of life skills, including assertiveness, conflict resolution, refusal skills, stress management, coping techniques, decision making, and goal setting. These skills can be taught through a combination of direct instruction and modeling.