Role Transitions Into Old Age Centuries ago, growing old was uncommon and those able to transition into old age were revered by their community as teachers, tribal historians, and sources of wisdom (Nelson, 2005, p. 208-209). Growing old was therefore something to look forward to. In contemporary American society, however, transitioning into old age carries a number of negative connotations, including being useless and a burden on society. Once the perceived value was stripped from reaching old age, other pressing concerns began to dominate social attitudes toward elder citizens. Terror Management Theory (TMT) posits that social constructs help protect individuals from the indifference and chaos of the world we inhabit and among the most prominent examples is religion. Ageism likewise helps protect individuals from thoughts and feelings about their own mortality by distancing themselves from those inhabiting old age. If TMT accurately reflects attitudes toward old age in American society then role transitions commonly associated with growing old may be stressful. To gain a better understanding of which role transitions tend to be traumatic for older adults, recent literature concerning this topic will be reviewed here.

Generalizations

Hinrichsen and Clougherty (2006) discuss research findings supporting their conclusion that retirement is not an especially trying time and the so-called empty-nest syndrome is a rare phenomenon. They conclude that in general, older adults adapt well to the loss of roles as they enter old age, but taking on new roles may be stressful. For example, transitioning from spouse to caregiver, or becoming a partner with a chronic health issue, can cause significant problems in a person's life. Rarely is anyone prepared for these transitions when they happen, which places individuals at risk for experiencing a lower quality of life and developing mental health problems like depression. One of the more difficult transitions is the role of caregiver for a loved one suffering from dementia. The physical and emotional toll can be substantial because dementia is a progressive disease lasting years. Another transition requiring major adjustments is that of becoming a parent to a grandchild or grandchildren, with both positive and negative outcomes.

Transitioning into old age, contrary to the predictions of TMT, is therefore generally well-tolerated by many older adults. Maybe ageism dominates attitudes toward the old and the process of growing old, at least among younger adults, but the actual experience of growing old provides experiences and wisdom that moderates the terror of mortality. One exception to this outcome is the intrusion of new roles, such as caregiver, becoming chronically ill, or taking on the role of parenting grandchildren. A smaller portion of older adults, however, struggle with new roles, such as becoming a retiree. The Stereotype Embodiment Theory provides an explanation for why role transitions may be difficult for some but not others (Levy, 2009). According to this theory a portion of older adults continue to avoid socially-derived negative connotations towards old age, resulting in negative mental and physical health outcomes. Additional factors may also play a role, as the next section about retirement reveals.

Variation in Retirement Outcomes

Successful retirement in terms of individual well-being depends on a number of factors, including changes in income, social networks, and status (Damman, Henkens, & Kalmijin, 2013). Persons never married or in a life-long marriage were less likely to experience problems with retirement compared to all others, due in part to the financial strain of divorce. In addition, men, more than women, experience the loss of income more acutely. These results are especially interesting, because the study took place in the Netherlands where a universal pension system and private pensions are widely utilized. Compared to loss of income and status, lost social connections was the variable most often reported by retirees; however, with time the importance of lost social connections declined, whereas the lost income and status continued to be missed. Overall, the authors of this study concluded that it is the amount an individual invested into their work life that determines how smoothly they transition to retirement, with those investing heavily experiencing the greatest difficulty with losses. These findings are consistent with those of a study comparing the retirement experiences of career and non-professional women, with career women identifying more with their former career roles and experiencing the greatest sense of loss with the transition to retirement (Price, 2002). Non-professional women, however, seemed to adapt quite well to their new role as retirees because their identities were not tied to their work roles and continuity was maintained concerning the other roles in their...

In contrast, a European study found that poor work conditions predicted a desire to retire as soon as possible (Dal Bianco, Trevisan, & Weber, 2015). The relationship between poor work environment and actual or partial early retirement was weaker, but still significant. The desire to transition into the role of retiree, argued the authors of this study, was probably due to the combined effects of generous pension plans common to European countries, seniority pay schedules, and rigid work arrangements, because these factors undermined the willingness of employers to invest in training senior workers. In other words, the greater the incentives to retire the less likely employers will invest in improving the work environment for senior workers.
Continued employment is another option for those entering old age and Carr and Kail (2012) examined which factors predicted this outcome. Based on their findings, retirees able to devote a portion of their discretionary time to volunteer work were more likely to renter the workforce at least part-time. This relationship, however, was only observed among retirees who were actively engaged in volunteer work prior to retirement. In contrast, retirees burdened with caregiving roles, such as caring for a sick spouse or parenting grandchildren, were least likely to reenter the workforce, but only if caregiving began around the time of retirement. This relationship was not observed among retirees who were caregivers before retirement. An explanation for the findings, one offered by the authors of the study, is consistent with continuity theory (Atchley, 1989), such that individuals accustomed to being engaged in the community through work and volunteering will continue that trend after retirement. The imposition of a caregiving role at retirement, however, will preclude workforce reentry.

Being a Grandparent

Thoughts of growing old often conjure images of becoming a grandparent, but how is this event actually experienced? In general, as a person ages they become less concerned with their age, would prefer to be a younger age, and hope to live longer (Kaufman, & Elder, 2003). Compared to men, however, women are more accepting of their actual age. In terms of parenting roles, parents generally feel older, but grandparents hope to live a long life. Grandparents also tend to feel younger and believe old age starts later, but only by those who enjoy being a grandparent. If, however, the grandparenting role began at a relatively early age then a person is more likely to identify with being old. This finding is consistent with those of Armstrong (2003), who found that women across ethnic lines believed being a grandmother implied being old. These findings revealed a number of factors influence age identity and becoming a grandparent is clearly one of them. Being a grandparent, however, takes on new meanings when this role involves parenting grandchildren.

Hinrichsen and Clougherty (2006) detailed a case study of an African-American widower retiree who allowed his single adult daughter to return home shortly after the birth of her son (pp. 145-147). He ended up parenting the child while the daughter works or was out with friends. Resentment began to build and he eventually was diagnosed with major depression. During the counseling sessions he admits that his wife had been the primary parent in the family and was therefore feeling frustrated providing proper care for the child due to this ignorance. In addition, he had failed to negotiate the parameters of childcare before his daughter moved back home. This case study revealed how acquiring new roles in old age can be stressful for grandfathers and supports the findings of Bullock (2005), who found that grandfathers raising grandchildren often experience a feeling of powerlessness when reentering the role of parent, providing daily parenting care, and when thinking about the long-term parenting needs of the child. The age range of the grandfathers participating in this study was 65 to 89, so the latter concern, at least is realistic.

Summary

The factors that influence role transitions as older adults enter old age seem countless, but some generalities are possible. Most adults experience retirement in positive terms, except those who invest heavily in their careers (Damman, Henkens, & Kalmijin, 2013; Price, 2002). This conclusion was supported by several studies and suggests continuity theory explains at least a portion of retirees who miss different aspects of their careers (Atchley, 1989). Alternatively, proponents of stereotype embodiment theory would argue retirees who miss aspects of their careers do so because of the negative connotations associated with old age (Levy, 2009). Continuity…