Marked Increase in the Number

¶ … marked increase in the number of children victimized by child molesters. The advent and popularity of the internet has spawned a new breed of molesters that are preying upon children. The purpose of this discussion is to examine the type of individuals that molest children. The research will focus on several studies and observations that have been made concerning the nature of individuals that molest children.

Child Molesters

According to Taylor & Quayle (2003), sexual contact between adults and children has been documented throughout the course of written history (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). In some cases it appears that there are varying degrees of tolerance for such contact in some societies. The author asserts that the idea and child sexual abuse did not come into focus as a social issue until the 1980's when academic research began to surface (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). When molestation began to be characterized as a serious social issue many studies came about which examined the characteristics of child molesters (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). In addition, studies began to focus on the affect of molestation on victims. Through this research it was discovered that child molestation occurred quite often (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). One researcher even pointed out 'In every locale where it has been sought, researchers have demonstrated its existence at levels high enough to be detected through surveys of a few hundred adults in the general population (Taylor & Quayle, 2003, pg. 47)."

Although there has been a great deal of research done concerning the topic of child molesters in recent years, most of what is known about these individuals is taken from Freud.

Freud asserted that deviant sexual behaviors are caused by character disorders (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). Freud characterized these deviant behaviors as perversions. He also contended that such perversions occur because the object of the molester's sexual dire was diverted (Taylor & Quayle, 2003). Freud also believed that such a perversion usually arises in early childhood and these deviant behaviors are unchangeable in most cases. In addition Freud claimed the sexual abuse of children was frequently found 'among school children and child attendants' (14), and that sexual impulses were amongst those least controlled by 'the higher activities of the mind'...the 'untreatability' aspect of Freud's account has had a profound effect on attitudes toward treatment that has only been challenged within more recent years (Taylor & Quayle 2003, pg. 48)."

In addition to Freud, others have provided theories associated with explaining the mindset of sexual offenders. For instance, Fraser posited that unresolved oedipal strivings amongst male offenders caused them to become molesters. He believed that even when some males grow older they are still in love with their boyhood selves.

Fraser also tended to link the child abuse of children to homosexuality. This belief has proven faulty overtime because many offenders tend to abuse children of the opposite sex.

The author further explains that there exists another theory that has a great deal of influence within the context of the therapeutic community. This theory asserts that there is often an improper occurrence of events including behaviors, thoughts and feelings, allowing for the organization of behaviors that are deviant. This organization is formed as and result of various stimulus and response characteristics. With this theory as the foundation it is believed that children can be exposed to scenarios in which some premature arousal to stimuli occurs (Taylor & Quayle 2003). When this is united with improper masturbatory fantasies throughout adolescence deviant sexual behavior or molestation may be the end result (Taylor & Quayle 2003).

It appears that these inappropriate occurrences are questionable in and of themselves as opposed to being indicative of some additional primary dysfunction. This theory of why people tend to molest children is different from biological theories because they tend to emphasize the genetic, hormonal or neuropsychological causes associated with molestation. The author asserts that one study Bogaert (2001) evaluated the substantiation for increased instances of non-righthandedness in sex offenders as a measure of fundamental developmental or central nervous system abnormalities. "While such correlational studies are interesting, they do little to move us away from models emphasizing associations between a variety of biological factors and the emergence of behavior that is socially labeled as deviant (Taylor & Quayle 2003)." In other words, these types of studies often fail to ascertain what causes some individuals to molest children because developmental or central nervous system irregularities while others with these same irregularities are not affected in that way (Taylor & Quayle 2003).

In addition some accounts of sexual deviance are identified as paraphilias as per the classification system of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The diagnostic tool for this classification is DSM-IV. According to this diagnostic tool paraphillia is present when there are repeated and powerful sexual urges, fantasies or behaviors containing objects, children or nonconsenting adults, or torment or degradation (Taylor & Quayle 2003). Individuals that are diagnosed with paraphillia must have experienced the aforementioned symptoms for at least six months and the symptoms must also have an adverse affect on the individual's social life or work life. Pedophilia is a type of paraphillia, and is characterized by 'Sexuality and Gender Identity Disorders' (Taylor & Quayle 2003). Additionally the DSMIV classification makes a distinction between people who have a sexual attraction only to children and people who are also attracted to adults (Taylor & Quayle 2003).

The differences of opinion concerning the reasons why people molest children are evident (Seto et al., 2005). Each of the aforementioned theories associated with why individuals commit sexual offenses against children have been accepted to some extent; some have been accepted wholly while others have only experienced partial acceptance. The next section of the discussion will provide information associated with studies and observations that have been published over the past five years.

Child Molesters and heterosocial competence

In his meta-analysis Dreznick (2003) sought to focus on the relationship between child molesters and heterosocial competence of both rapists and child molesters. Heterosocial competence is the ability to function heterosexually. Various studies have found that many child molesters have poor heterosocial skills. Emmers-Sommer et al. (2004) explains heterosocial competence more clearly by defining it as the inability to initiate and sustain relationships with potential sexual partners can generate alternative outlets or outcomes that involve anti-social behaviors. A cornerstone of this argument is the assumption that sexual offenders, on average, lack social skills. Social skills involve two sets of inter-related processes: (a) ability to interpret the messages and situation correctly, and, (b) ability to generate the appropriate message within the context (Emmers-Sommer et al., 2004, pg. 1)."

To be included in the meta-analysis performed by Dreznick (2003) studies must have evaluated the heterosocial competence with behavioral or self-report measures (Dreznick, 2003). In addition the researcher also gathered effect size data addressing certain measures including fear of intimacy if the framework was related to a heterosexual relationship. Additionally studies had to include sex offenders as an aspect of its samples. However the offenders did not have to be convicted of a sexual offense (Dreznick, 2003). For example participants who reported being a part of physical activity that was sexually coercive would be labeled as rapists in the sample (Dreznick, 2003).

Additionally studies that could not be included in the meta-analysis were inclusive of those that found "no significant differences" amongst groups but failed to produce statistical proof of such an assertion (Dreznick, 2003).

For instance, in their study Spaccarelli, Bowden, Coatsworth, and Kim (1997) reported no significant differences amongst violent non-sex-offending, sexually aggressive, and less violent non-sex-offending delinquents in perceived heterosocial competence (Dreznick, 2003). However, the researchers failed to include key statistical information including standard deviations and means leading to misleading results. In addition some studies only provided statistical information that was partially sufficient, for these studies only certain measures could be utilized (Dreznick, 2003).

In the end there were a total of 14 published studies used to complete the meta-analysis. These published studies resulted in 119 effect sizes with responses from 5,295 participants (Dreznick, 2003). Each of these participants were adult males, with the exception of one study in which the participants were teenage males with the average age being 15. Samples where rapist were involved included both incarcerated and nonincarcerated men.

All samples where child molesters were participants were of incarcerated men. Though, in a number of the studies the child molesters had been chosen to go through treatment. In addition there were other studies that failed to specify whether the molestation was incestuous or nonfamilial or whether their victims were male or female (Dreznick, 2003). With this being the case, child molesters were sited in a single category.

The findings of the meta-analysis were consistent with the hypotheses of the researcher. The researcher found the following the studies reviewed in this article have consistently shown that child molesters have poorer heterosocial skills than either rapists, incarcerated non-sex-offenders, or nonoffenders. I predicted that child molesters would have less heterosocial competence than non-sex-offenders. This hypothesis was supported, and is consistent with previous research. I also predicted that the difference in heterosocial competence between child molesters and non-sex-offenders would be significantly larger than the difference between rapists and non-sex-offenders. This hypothesis was also supported (Dreznick, 2003,pg 170)."

The researcher also hypothesized that the variation in heterosocial competence amongst child molesters and nonincarcerated non-sex-offenders would be considerably larger than the variation amongst child molesters and incarcerated non-sex-offenders (Dreznick, 2003). The findings of the meta-analysis were consistent with this hypothesis.

The author of this meta-analysis concluded that because child molesters have significant problems with heterosocial skills social skills training may assist in the treatment of these individuals. However the author points out that the treatment of heterosocial skills is only one component of an overall treatment program. Other components of a treatment program may include anger management and increasing empathy for the children that are victimized (Dreznick, 2003).

Additionally the author points out certain limitations of the study. For instance, that all of the child molesters that participated in the study were behind bars. Therefore, it could also be concluded that many sex offenders have very good social skills and have been able to avoid capture (Dreznick, 2003). In addition the author explains that predators that go to foreign countries so that they can get away with having sexual contact with children may also have high heterosocial skills. As such it may be important in the future to examine child molesters that are not in jail.

Child Molesters that are Socially Skilled

The assertions made by Dreznick (2003) related to the idea that some child molesters have very good social skills is confirmed in a book entitled "The Socially Skilled Child Molester." In this book the author, Van Dam (2006) explains that one of the reasons why child molestation is so prevalent can be attributed to the ability of the molester to behave charismatically. The author insists that those that are responsible for the well-being of children are often "enchanted" by the charisma, friendliness and support of socially adept molesters that the author refers to as groomers. In addition the author posits that parents and other adults are often so impressed with the groomers persona that even when they suspect that something is wrong they hesitate to confront the situation because they fear that the reputation of the groomer will be damaged by allegations (Van Dam, 2006).

A book entitled Predators: Pedophiles, Rapists, and Other Sex Offenders: Who They Are, How They Operate, and How We Can Protect Ourselves and Our Children, confirms the aforementioned tactics of child molesters. Although there are many factors that are consistent when one studies and examines the mind of a child molester, the truth of the matter is many child molesters are the person that you would least expect of such a crime. After all most people do not know what to look for in a child predator and as such molesters can often disguise themselves as a regular person that cares about children. This is why molesters are often referred to as 'the person you would least expect' (Salter, 2004). The author also explains that quite often a child molester will live a double life. In the words of one molester "I would do kind and generous things for people... I would go to nursing homes. Talk with the elderly. Pray with the elderly Salter, 2004 page31)."

Child Molesters perceptions of Early interpersonal relationships

In addition to the aforementioned meta-analysis, a study conducted by McCormack et al. (2003) sought to uncover the perceptions of child molesters early interpersonal relationships. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate these interpersonal relationships through the utilization of the grounded theory. The authors explain that little is known about the manner in which child molesters' perceive their early interpersonal relationships when compared with other criminals (McCormack et al. 2003). The grounded theory method allowed researchers to maximize the evaluation of the data gathered from the study. The authors also report three aims associated with the research. These aims are as follows:

To create a very specific depiction of the early experiences of sexual offenders, particularly those aspects associated with their offense-related problems including level of interpersonal trust, impaired independence, and difficulties controlling emotions, and the level to which participants saw themselves in a negative way (McCormack et al. 2003).

Examine the variation as it relates to the way sexual offenders perceived their early interpersonal experiences when compared to other types of criminals. The purpose of examining this issue was to ascertain if variations existed amongst various kinds of criminals in their early experiences, or their view of past experiences (McCormack et al. 2003).

To learn if offenders had dissimilar views of early relationships with their parents.

To conduct this study researchers utilized a semi-structured interview format because this type of format is believed to supply the most correct depiction of a person's early experiences than other formats. It is believed that correctness is enhanced with this format because individuals' interpersonal schemas are often tacit and therefore not easily accessible by direct questioning. They may not be aware of their underlying relationship models, and when asked directly about these may unconsciously distort their responses in some way. By allowing offenders to respond more freely to open-ended questions it is possible to develop a richer understanding of their underlying beliefs and models (McCormack et al. 2003, pg.85)."

Participants that were child molesters were a part of the Kia Marama Sex Offender Treatment Program that functioned inside a medium security prison in New Zealand (McCormack et al. 2003). Most of the men participated prior to receiving treatment. The other groups participating in the study included, sexual offenders with adult victims, violent nonsexual offenders, and nonsexual, nonviolent offenders (McCormack et al. 2003). These individuals were recruited from the same prison as the child molesters in addition to another medium security prison in the same region (McCormack et al. 2003). Only the child molesters were engaged in a treatment program.

A total of 147 men participated in the study. Of the 147, 55 were child molesters, 30 were sexual offenders with adult victims, 32 men with violent offenses, and 30 men incarcerated for something other than sexual or violent offenses. The authors point out that the crimes attributed by child molesters included everything from masturbating in front of a minor to intercourse or sodomy. The authors also note considerable differences in the ages of participant. For instance, the child molesters tended to be much older than the other groups and those that committed sexual offenses against adults were considerably older than the violent and nonviolent groups (McCormack et al. 2003). There were also noteworthy variation is the groups as it related to the number of offenses that had been committed. Those committing sexual crimes against adults and child molesters tended to have the most wide-ranging history, and nonviolent offenders had the shortest criminal histories (McCormack et al. 2003).

All participants were interviewed concerning early interpersonal experiences. A total of 35 questions were used from the attachment research literature. The interview included questions pertaining to parental interest and support, parental reaction to negative emotion, stability of parental actions, view of safety and security in the home and an overall evaluation of the relationship (McCormack et al. 2003).

The study found that child molesters tended to have significantly more sexual deviation and abuse than rapists and nonviolent offenders (McCormack et al. 2003). This is consistent with past researcher that has found that child molesters are at least twice as likely to report sexual abuse as those that commit sexual offenses against adults (McCormack et al. 2003). Additionally the study found that Child molesters and violent offenders tended to assess themselves in a more negative light than the other participants in the study (McCormack et al. 2003). This is consistent with the existing literature which asserts that "child molesters have a tendency toward fearful and preoccupied attachment styles, both characterized by negative views of the self (McCormack et al. 2003)." The authors point out that the findings of their research is consistent with many studies that have also found child molesters usually see themselves in self-depreciating light.

The authors explain that negative perceptions of self can be correlated to the feeling of personal worthlessness and to a decreased feeling of self-sufficiency (McCormack et al. 2003). This relationship is makes sense because-as the study found- child molesters experienced a reduced amount of independent attachment relationships when compared with other types of criminals including nonviolent offenders and even those that committed sexual offenses against adults (McCormack et al. 2003). Again this particular finding is consistent with existing literature positing that child molesters usually have dependent relationships with their mothers and that child molesters tend to not have clear boundaries in their parental relationships (McCormack et al. 2003).

Additionally the authors note that the decreased level of autonomy child molesters experience may occur as a result of their increased propensity to display fearful and anxious attachment styles. People that have these types of attachment styles want to become intimate with other but do not want to be rejected (McCormack et al. 2003). The author explains that this increased focus on other people may occur as a result of a higher level of sensitivity to rejection and they may also have a propensity to search for the approval of others (McCormack et al. 2003).

Now that we have garnered a greater understanding of child predators in general let us discuss the somewhat taboo subject of female child molesters.

Female Child Molesters

When most people think of child sexual predators they only envision men preying on children (Reavey & Warner, 2003). Although it is true that must molesters are men, there are also child molesters who are women. According to Denov (2003) traditional ideas of sexual scripts often prevent our society from identifying female abusers. Self report studies have demonstrated that the sexual abuse by female offenders is more prevalent than previously believed. However, there is still a belief that women are not sexual aggressive. Additionally traditional sex scripts define femininity as protecting, nurturing and nonsexual (Denov 2003). One research observed

Socially, we, as a culture, find it particularly difficult to think that women would sexually abuse children. Our Judeo-Christian heritage places enormous emphasis on women as warm, nurturing mothers. Furthermore, we are, at best, culturally ambivalent about female sexuality. We struggle with the notion of women-particularly mothers -- being sexual at all (Denov (2003, p. 3)"