Sharp force trauma and bone morphology in forensic investigations

Sharp Force Trauma Macroscopic Evidence on Bone Morphology

Reviewing the literature is of utmost importance. Without a comprehensive review of literature on the subject, readers of a study are left with a lack of understanding or with a misconception that the results of the study or the subject being studied exists in a kind of bubble and has no relevance to other areas of study that are along the same basic issues. In order to encompass the entire issue, some of the areas that surround forensics and pathology must also be addressed before bone morphology is specifically discussed.

This is done to give an overview of the issue and to show the different ways that are used in order to ensure that crimes are solved and understandings are made regarding testing procedures and concerns. Because of this, forensic entomology, DNA sampling, and fossil evidence will all be addressed before bone morphology is discussed.

Forensic entomology is a relatively new area of study when it comes to murder, but it can tell a great deal that is very helpful with homicide investigations and other areas of law and medicine. It is for this reason that the interest in forensic entomology has continued to grow, and the field appears to fascinate many people. This is especially true when they begin to realize how much insects can tell humans.

For the purposes of this paper, the field of forensic entomology will be discussed only as it deals with homicide and what the insects on a corpse can tell medical examiners and law enforcement about time and place of death. The dipteran life cycle will also be discussed as it plays an important role in many of these kinds of investigations and is quite often used by forensic entomologists that are seeking answers.

Many laypeople became interested in forensic entomology through movies such as "The Silence of the Lambs," because forensic entomologists figured somewhat prominently in the movie. These forensic entomologists are now considered "cool" by many people who find the field gruesome and fascinating at the same time. This somewhat morbid fascination with death and what can be learned from a corpse has propelled forensic entomology, if not into the spotlight, than at least out on the edge of the stage. Forensic entomology may or may not be "cool," but it is a serious science and has much to tell individuals that are studying a corpse to determine when that person died and where. If foul play is thought to be involved, when the victim died and where can be pieces of evidence that would be considered very crucial in bringing the murderer to justice.

The most popular insect utilized to determine the time of death is the blowfly (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). It is important not only because it colonizes every corpse that it finds, but also because it has a very set pattern about when it appears and what type of larval stages it goes through, including how long it takes for the eggs to hatch based on temperature (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). Issues such as whether eggs were laid by more than one group of blowflies can also be determined based on larval stages found on the corpse and whether the temperature of the body and surrounding area was hot or cold (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000).

The blowfly, of course, is not the only insect that is considered when looking at insects to help determine the time of death, although it is the most common and usually the earliest insect on the scene. Other insects that can be found on or around a corpse include beetles, as there are many different varieties (Lord, 2004). These usually appear when the corpse has 'dried out' to some degree, and they continue the process that the flies have started (Lord, 2004). Butterflies and other insects also sometimes land on or around corpses, but they are generally not of forensic value, and it is the flies and the beetles that hold significance for any serious homicide investigation where forensic entomology is involved.

Also important to the insect colonization of the corpse is what type of weather existed between the time of the victim's death and the time that the body was found (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). Weather that was rainy, foggy, or otherwise damp can cause more activity from the insects that like shade and cooler weather, while some insects prefer sunny, dry weather and will be most active when this kind of weather is taking place (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). The weather may not seem very significant to many who come upon a dead body, but the role that the weather, and therefore the insects, play in determining the time of death can be very significant (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000).

The subject has become so popular that various museums are creating exhibits that deal with the issue. One of these, the Science Museum of Minnesota, had a 2003 exhibit that dealt with forensic entomology, including fake corpses in various states of decay, many insects, information about forensic entomologists and what they do, and some hands-on studies that people could use to try to piece together clues and determine the 'time of death' based on information provided by the insects found (Harlow, 2003). The exhibit was designed by a forensic entomologist, M. Lee Goff, who was, at that time, one of only nine individuals in the world to be certified as a forensic entomologist (Harlow, 2003).

It does not appear to be work that many want to do, and most people do not even know about it (Sachs, 1998). If there were more knowledge, however, it appears likely that more crimes would be solved based on the evidence collected from insects. Naturally, there is no guarantee that this would happen, because much of what these individuals do will still not hold up well in court. However, there are more and more cases that are using some of this type of evidence to help convict murderers, and it is predicted by some that this trend will continue until forensic entomology is as well-recognized within the legal system and the courtroom as other tests used today.

DNA testing and other methods that are currently used and accepted to find the murder in many cases were not always accepted by the courts, or by others in law enforcement. It took a long time for these tests to be studied thoroughly enough to prove that they were reliable and valid. Once this was done, there was far less concern about these tests not being valid or convicting someone that was innocent. In fact, DNA testing has led to the release of several individuals who claimed that they were innocent - and they were. The evidence proved that they did not commit the crime, and although they cannot get back the amount of time that they lost, they are free men today.

One of the main ways that forensic entomology works to prove the time of death is through the dipteran cycle. This is the cycle that the diptera, or blowfly, goes through from the egg to the adult (Sachs, 1998). When a blowfly arrives it will lay eggs, and these will hatch. The larvae of the blowfly will then use the corpse for food, and they secrete a chemical that breaks down the body so that it can be consumed more easily (Sachs, 1998). The larvae go through three distinct stages where they grow larger and enough of their characteristics change that the three stages can be identified by those that study them, making identification much easier (Sachs, 1998).

These things happen in very predictable time periods, and because of this it helps to show when an individual died. If there was foul play involved in the death of the individual, establishing the time of death can help to show where that person might have been at that time, when they were last seen living, and who might have been in their company around the time of their death. From this, suspects can often be found and this can help law enforcement to catch a killer.

Unfortunately for the future of this science, it meets with a lot of objections in the courtroom, even though it has so far been shown to be very reliable (Sachs, 1998). Something as simple as the fact that the temperature readings for the day were taken 20 miles from where the body was found can have a bearing on the case (Sachs, 1998). The lawyers of defendants have argued that, just because it reached a certain temperature in one town, that does not mean that it reached that temperature in another town miles up the road (Sachs, 1998). Since temperature plays a large role in how fast the body is found by insects, how fast the eggs are lain and hatched, and how fast the larvae grow up to become adults, the temperature around a body can be vital to a case regarding homicide.

If the temperature is taken miles away, or if the insect that was found and studied was not exactly the same as one that had been studied before, only similar perhaps, the defense attorney will also often argue that the entomologist's testimony is only guesswork, and therefore that it is not valid and should not be admitted as evidence (Sachs, 1998). Judges have taken different approaches about whether to allow this kind of evidence, but the trend appears to be toward allowing the prosecution to admit this kind of evidence, which indicates that forensic entomology in general is becoming more accepted by law enforcement and by the court system across the country.

The way that forensic entomology is becoming worthwhile in the court system is a trial by fire, but many entomologists say that they welcome this because they know that this ensures that, when their evidence is finally accepted as being just as valid as DNA and other testing, it will truly be because it has been tested thoroughly and found to be valid (Sachs, 1998). These forensic entomologists also realize that their data will be valid and valued if, and only if, the insects that they find are seen to be valued by the courts (Sachs, 1998). One of the problems that they run into, however, is what to do about corpses that are found in closed-in places. This is problematic because flies and other insects cannot find these bodies as easily, and sometimes not at all (Sachs, 1998).

Because of this, the time of death as established by blowfly larvae can be difficult to determine, and therefore it will not hold up in court to the extent that it would have otherwise. When this occurs, forensic entomologists try to look at how long it would have been before the insects would have been able to detect the body and make their way to it, and they add that time frame onto the time frame that they can find from the insect activity that they discover on the body itself (Sachs, 1998).

When they do this, however, they open themselves up for all kinds of legal challenges because they are, in effect, guessing. They really do not know for sure what the time of death was, and therefore they have trouble convincing the court that they are certain about when the person died. Without this certainty, it is obviously much more difficult to make a case.

Regardless of the concerns that some have about this it appears to be relatively clear that the field of forensic entomology will continue to expand and that more people will begin to see the benefits that it can have when it comes to homicide investigations and placing the time of death of a victim. Since movies such as "The Silence of the Lambs," the field has seen more interest and this looks as though it will continue. Not everyone embraces this particular field of study, but many seem to think that it has merit. In 1998, there was only one person in the world who was a full-time certified forensic entomologist (Sachs, 1998). By the year 2003, there were nine people throughout the world who were certified and performing that duty full-time (Harlow, 2003).

The movement from one person to nine people in six years is not a large jump, but it does indicate that there is interest in the field. When this field becomes more accepted within law enforcement and within the courts, it appears likely that even more people will choose this particular career path and when they do the field will begin to grow much more quickly, creating a rise in the ability to solve homicide cases that are still going unsolved by law enforcement at this point in time.

Although some see this field as being rather gruesome, it is also very fascinating and can be extremely helpful in bringing murderers to justice, which indicates that it has a lot of value for those in law enforcement and the court system. Whether this value is easily recognized remains to be seen, as the field of forensic entomology still faces some challenges before the courts will accept it on a large scale. It has been shown, however, to be more accurate than an estimation judging off of blood pooling, rigor mortis, and other factors that are commonly used to determine the time of death. If this particular trend continues, it is only a matter of time before the field of forensic entomology begins to grow rapidly and many more cases are solved using the insects that were previously seen to be just a nuisance to investigators.

DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is often called the "blueprint of life." That's because almost every living organism on this planet, whether bacterium, plant, fungus or animal, contains some form of the molecule (Epplen & Lubjuhn, 1999). The code contained within the DNA determines whether the organism turns out to be a fish or a dandelion, a person or a chimp; it also creates the characteristics that make one individual similar to, but still different from, another.

DNA is an extremely stable molecule, which means the information it contains can last long after the organism itself has died. In fact, it's so stable that scientists recently extracted DNA samples from insects trapped and preserved in amber droplets millions of years ago, obtaining information about how life functioned long before humans evolved.

DNA, though, is just a blueprint; by itself it does not create or maintain an organism. Rather, through a complex series of events it is "translated" into amino acids and then into proteins that the body's cells can use to obtain and store energy, transport materials, communicate and reproduce, among other things (Epplen & Lubjuhn, 1999).

Wrongful convictions are not often talked about in the news, but they are occasionally mentioned when they are incredibly significant, such as a man who was wrongfully convicted 20 years ago and then was freed based on DNA evidence or some other new way of determining whether the person was actually guilty (the DNA, 2007).

These are the exceptions rather than the rules, but these do happen, and they can significantly affect the lives of many people. Not only is the life of the wrongly accused changed forever, but his or her family and friends are all affected as well. This is a very serious concern, and naturally the criminal justice system tries to avoid wrongful convictions as much as they can. It is not always possible, however, to avoid wrongfully convicting someone if there is a great deal of circumstantial evidence or if there are witnesses who claim the person is guilty of a particular crime (Coleman & Swenson, 1994).

Now that there are more reliable procedures, such as DNA testing, there are fewer people who are wrongfully convicted. Before this kind of testing was available, wrongful conviction was much more severe, and it was relatively common for people to be wrongfully convicted of crimes, because they lacked the sophisticated ways to prove their innocence that are available now. Appeals were not as popular and the amount of court cases to rely on were also more limited, which gave these people less to work with where precedent was concerned (Coleman & Swenson, 1994). Lawyers were not as skilled as they are today, and there was less they could do to defend their clients from wrongful accusations.

However, today was brought a new age of criminology, and many of the people who were previously convicted of crimes are being found innocent and released based on new evidence. Still, though, there are those that maintain their innocence and have no way to prove it. They may also be wrongly convicted, but if their crimes were not ones that produced DNA evidence there is often little that they can do to show that they were not guilty. This has much to do with the idea that how many people are wrongfully convicted in this country cannot accurately be determined (Sheindlin, 1996). Opinions and some educated guesswork are all that is available to those that want answers to this question.

There are protections in place to avoid wrongful convictions, but they do not always do their job. One of the main protections is all of the new ways that are used to determine whether someone is guilty, such as the aforementioned DNA testing. This and other new scientific breakthroughs provide good protection because they are very exacting and leave virtually no room for error. Another protection is having a jury. This means that others must hear the case and say what they think is right, instead of leaving it up to the judge.

This gives more of a chance for others to listen to all of the evidence and agree as to whether someone has committed a crime. It is more thorough than allowing only a judge to make that determination, since the jury is usually six or twelve people, instead of just the judge. The fact that all people, regardless of their crime or anything else, have the right to an attorney and will have one appointed if they cannot afford one is another important protection for those that are accused. This ensures that all people are defended properly and that trials are as fair as they possible can be.

There is, however, always some chance for error, even when DNA testing is used. Even though there are many protections, it seems that more are needed. No one should be wrongfully accused and have to suffer through the pain of being imprisoned if they have done nothing wrong. Juries are important, and they should be continued. Better pay for court-appointed lawyers would be one way to help protect their clients. Most of these lawyers get paid considerably less than other lawyers that work for big firms, and because of this they do not have access to some of the tools that others do. This can hurt their clients' chances of being freed, even if those clients are innocent (Sheindlin, 1996).

While genes make up a certain percentage of a person's DNA, they do not account for all the base pairs; in fact, perhaps as much as 90% of the DNA is non-coding - what is sometimes called "junk DNA." The key to the fingerprinting process lies within these non-coding regions, many of which contain stretches of short, identically repeated sequences of nucleotides known as variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The number of VNTRs at specific places (called loci) on each chromosome varies from person to person and can be used to pinpoint a sample's source (Coleman & Swenson, 1994).

To isolate these differences, scientists use the following approach:

Obtain a DNA Sample

Since all the cells in the body contain the same DNA sequences, the specimens can come from blood, saliva, semen, tissue, hair, fingernails or any other body part. In the case of paternity or parentage testing, the specimen is usually a hair sample or a buccal swab (a Q-tip rubbed against the inside of the cheek - see Parentage Testing below), since these are relatively non-invasive. In a criminal case, investigators must use whatever samples are available at the scene (Sheindlin, 1996).

Cut the DNA

DNA strand can run into the millions of bases. This is far too unwieldy to work with; therefore, scientists use one of two procedures:

1. They cut a long strand of DNA into fragments with restriction enzymes to produce manageable segments of known length. Enzymes are proteins that help speed up a reaction, and these enzymes cut the DNA at very specific, and well-known, places. For example, a bacterial enzyme called EcoR1 cuts the DNA only when the sequence GAATTC occurs. Small fragments can be easily identified and then pieced back together into their original order.

2. They use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to amplify small amounts of DNA. PCR requires much smaller samples than the restriction enzyme technique; it is therefore extremely useful in forensic applications when there is usually only a small amount of a sample present.

Sort the Fragments

Cutting the DNA is a good first step, but what you get is essentially a soup filled with millions of DNA pieces of all different lengths (and varying degrees of interest to researchers). In order to isolate the fragment(s) of interest, you have to sort them; this is done by a process called gel electrophoresis. The "soup" is placed into a gel medium (usually agarose, a jellied substance purified from seaweed), and an electric current is applied. Since DNA is a charged molecule, it will migrate in the gel. In addition, the gel contains pores; smaller fragments will move more easily and more quickly through the pores, while larger fragments will remain near the top of the gel.

Transfer the DNA

Since DNA disintegrates quickly in the gel medium, it needs to be transferred to a support system such as a nylon membrane. The most common procedure is known as the Southern blot.

Research Design and Approach

The methodology of any study is particularly important. Without a clear understanding of how the study was conducted and what was dealt with in it, it becomes very difficult to analyze data in a way that makes any kind of sense later on. Because of this, the methodology that is carried out must be explained clearly and precisely, so that there is no confusion about what was done, and what was discovered. The methodology for this particular study will be discussed in this chapter, and the results of the study will be detailed and analyzed in the following chapter.

This section of the methodology deals specifically with how the research was designed and what approach was utilized. The approach to this particular study is considered to be really a relatively simple one, but it is also a very important one, and it makes the most sense for the information that is available and the answers that the researcher seeks to find in this particular study. The collected data of others will be utilized in order to determine what kind of information has been seen in the past and whether the current study indicates the same types of concerns. This type of analysis can allow for better understanding of what has gone on in the past, what the current study shows, and where future trends are heading when it comes to this issue.

While many studies interview subjects or conduct surveys, analyzing and reviewing the work of others is still quite a common method for many researchers to use when conducting a study of this nature, which is why it will be done for help in understanding what has gone before in this issue.

An approach such as this one showcases the information that was collected by others in the literature review and also allows the researcher's examination of the information to be examined and studied in a way that might be different from the ways that other researchers would utilize it or from the ways that similar information has been presented in articles and studies, thus broadening the issue and the understanding of the information provided.

Not all approaches work well for all studies, and care must be taken to ensure that the proper approach is utilized so that the study will be the best that it can be and make the most sense for all involved who read it. It is also important that the study impart the information that it is designed for, so that it will answer the question that was really asked. While there is no reason to assume that this is the only approach that will work, it is reasonable to assume that it is one of few approaches that will work, and that trying to utilize too many approaches or working with one that would be unfamiliar to the researcher would be difficult and would result in problems with the rest of the study.

As to the validity of the data, it would appear that information contained in books and articles that were written specifically about this subject would be considered to be valid. It would not be possible, however, for this researcher to verify everything that is read in these studies to ensure that it was accurate. Due to this, the assumption must be made that the authors of these studies wrote what was genuine and accurate, and that they did not cut corners or create something that they knew was not actually as truthful as it could have been. There is always the possibility that honest mistakes were innocently made, and these cannot be helped.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data analysis will use information that has already been collected by others that have written books and articles about the subject at hand, or about parts of the subject that work to make up the whole of it. The information from the literature will generally consist of a great deal of information from articles, but information from other sources will also be used to provide some of the data that is important to the study. This is done for several reasons, but the two most significant ones are time and cost. Attempting to collect new data about the issue would be costly, and it would also take up a great deal of time that could be better spent.

Another reason for the use of previously collected material for this issue is that it is often very difficult to get individuals that have knowledge to find time to talk about the issue. With this in mind, just collecting the data could prove very difficult and delay the study for quite some time. In an effort to avoid this problem, the researcher has chosen to utilize the material of others that have already been published, giving credit where it is due, and use that information in a way that is unique to the study based on qualitative analysis.

Limitations of the Study

As with any study, this one has some limitations that must be dealt with. All studies have their problems and limitations that surface, and tackling them and discussing them do not indicate weakness, but rather they show the strength of understanding possessed by the researcher when looking at the chosen field for the study. It is with this in mind that the limitations of the study will be discussed here, so that it can be shown that the researcher had a full and complete understanding of the problems inherent in doing a study such as this with the limited resources that are available. Any biases that the researcher might have can also be considered a limitation.

Limitations to a study are often overlooked by the researcher, but this can pose problems for others that wish to use the research at a later date. Unfortunately, this happens quite often, and it makes research suspect when there are no limitations discussed. In an effort to avoid this, all limitations of this study that are recognized by the researcher will be clearly spelled out and discussed so that there is no concern in the future about whether the researcher knew what kinds of problems might arise or what should be done about them if they did. In this way, any issues that could come up and be problematic will be avoided and the information contained in the study can be accepted as being reliable, valid, and unique. The issues of validity and reliability will be discussed in another section.

The first limitation that is important to note is that there is so little information about the case study subject in question - cut marks and bone morphology. While there is indeed some information, much of it comes from studies that deal only with forensics in general and is not specific enough. Therefore it is not as thorough as it could be if it came from sources that dealt with the bone morphology and cut marks only. It is necessary to discuss this somewhat to show exactly where the problem lies. If there were journal articles and other research written about this issue much of it would be objective, with some subjectivity on the part of the researcher undoubtedly thrown in. Without this, however, the only information that can be located in general is information that deals only with forensics in general and therefore does not give the strong bone and osteology component to the research that this particular study needs.

It is disturbing that there is such a small amount of information that is available on the issue at hand, specifically when it comes to cut marks and. There is information out there, but finding good quality, legitimate information from a proper source is somewhat difficult. With this is mind, it is troubling that there is so little information presented on this particular issue and its significance.

The other limitation of this study, other than the biases of the researcher, is that the study is largely subjective. Some may not see this as a limitation, but other will view it that way, and so it is important to discuss it and clear up any concerns early on. Objective studies are analytical and deal with facts and figures. Subjective studies deal more with perceptions and feelings, as well as thoughts and beliefs. While both are good ways of studying things, the kind of study that is being performed often dictates which way the study is conducted.

The Importance of Qualitative Research

The importance of qualitative research methods is very significant for many different areas of research (Adler & Adler, 1987; Giddens, 1990). Qualitative research is one of only two major approaches to research that are generally used within the field of social sciences. In order to perform qualitative research correctly, one must develop a strong understanding of the behavior of human beings and the reasons behind that behavior (Wolcott, 1995).

Unlike quantitative research, which relies on statistical analysis, qualitative research examines and studies the various aspects that are seen where human behavior is concerned. The how and why of decision making is addressed, as compared to the where, what, and when that is generally examined when it comes to quantitative methodology and the way that it is conducted (Wolcott, 1995).

Qualitative research, however, is a relatively broad term for any type of methodology that examines how both groups and individuals understand their world, how they view that world, and what kind of meaning they construct based on their experiences (Wolcott, 1999). Sometimes, these methods are used in combination with quantitative methods to get a better and deeper understanding of the issue or a social phenomenon, or to generate even more questions that might be needed for future research into an issue. Qualitative methods also do not place much emphasis on developing any kind of valid sample statistically or on the creation of any kind of statistical support when it comes to the hypotheses that are addressed (Ragin, 1994; Kaminski, 2004).

Many people have trouble following statistics and formulas, and instead they are more interested in simply being told 'this is what was researched, and this is what was found out.' This is not to imply that people are not intelligent, but only that statistics give a lot of people problems and many people also suspect them of not being all that accurate, or of being skewed to show what the researcher wants to show as opposed to what they actually indicated. Whether this is in fact true is not a matter for discussion here. Instead, the point is that the qualitative research method is likely a better method when it comes to addressing this particular kind of issue. Qualitative studies are generally easier to read, easier to understand, and seem to have more relevance for the average person than quantitative studies.

Qualitative studies are very significant when it comes to many issues, and therefore it is important to talk about them to some degree here, in order to help justify the belief that the qualitative study discussed in this document was a better choice than the quantitative study. Qualitative analysis requires a somewhat different approach than quantitative. The qualitative approach seeks to explore and understand a matter through insight into subjects' experiences (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002).

In comparison to quantitative research, these studies and qualitative research methods present limitations with regards to matters of reliability and validity. Subjective in nature, reliability is affected due to the difficulty of replicating studies. However, it has been noted that statements about the researchers' positions - the assumptions, the informants, the biases and the ideas of the researchers - enhance the chance of a study being replicated in a different setting (Patton, 2002; Malinowski, 1961). This indicates that qualitative studies are more likely to be addressed, repeated, and used by others, where quantitative studies are not.

Qualitative studies rely on basic techniques for gathering data. These are often used because they work well and they provide a great deal of information for the researcher in a relatively short period of time (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998). They are also easy to conduct because more people can be addressed at once, or because the literature that has been created and addressed by others can be used.

Qualitative research has grown somewhat in the last several years, as new ideas have been tried and expanded upon (Wolcott, 1995). This is significant for many individuals that are working on research projects today, because qualitative research has become much more widely used and also much more widely respected than it was in the past. Social science areas of research have used and respected qualitative methods for some time, but it has not been that long ago that other areas of research started becoming more involved with the qualitative method as well (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

The quantitative method is still very necessary for many of the areas of research that are seen today, as statistics are necessary, but the move toward more qualitative areas of research is significant and worth noting (Wolcott, 1995; Flyvbjerg, 2006; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

Not everyone believes that qualitative studies are the way to go, however, because quantitative studies provide more scientific information and therefore are often seen to be more thorough and significant (Fischer, 2005). This is not necessarily the case with all areas of research, however, and is often simply the perception of the individual that is looking at the study. How a person perceives the study will likely be directly related to what that person expects to get from the study and whether that person is or is not comfortable with the idea of statistical analysis, or whether that person would prefer something that is done in 'layman's terms' and is therefore easier to understand (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).

Both are valid ways of addressing research into many different types of issues, and how a particular researcher or group of researchers chooses to conduct a study does not necessarily relate to how much information that study will provide or how well it will be received by others (Wolcott, 1995). This is important to consider, whether qualitative or quantitative methods are being used for a particular study.

The study conducted here was primarily interested in whether cut marks left on bone could be studied in such a way as to determine what kind of instrument made the marks, whether it happened before or after death, and if there was anything specific about the instrument that was used that might be important to investigators. Those that investigate crime scenes are constantly looking for clues to what might have happened and the marks that are found on bones could be very helpful for this. However, not that many people are experts in this area, making determining what was used, how, when, and why rather difficult in most instances.

Chapter IV: Results

According to information collected within the literature review, the area of study involving cut marks and bone morphology has not been addressed as strongly as it could have and should have been. Despite this, however, the hypotheses that were addressed in Chapter One can still be dealt with and either confirmed or denied. These three hypotheses will be re-addressed here, along with the information that was collected in the literature review that is relevant.

Hypothesis One: If different cutting tools are used on bone surfaces, they will leave distinct morphological characteristics.

This hypothesis appears to be valid. Tables and figures included in the review of the literature indicated that knives, saws, and axes all leave different patterns on bones, and that specific saws also leave specific patterns, allowing for the investigator to study the pattern and find many different areas that could be addressed. By so doing, the investigator can determine what type of cutting tool was used and can often also determine how much force was needed to cause the damage that was seen and other issues that are important to the understanding of the crime and how it can best be solved as quickly as possible.

Hypothesis Two: If each sharp edged tool has a unique striae pattern, then unique markings will be identifiable on bone surface.

This second hypothesis also appears to be very valid. A figure in the literature review indicated that there were saws which had different angles and tooth patterns. These different saws created different patterns on bones when they were used and therefore unique markings on the surface of the bone would be available for identification.

Hypothesis Three: If markings on bone surface are unique in nature, then one can determine if markings were made peri or post mortem and by what cutting tool.

Again, this hypothesis appears valid. Bone markings not only come from the type of instrument used but also from whether the bone re-grew or attempted to heal itself at all after the injury was made. In cases where there was no re-growth it can be determined that the injury took place after death, such as a criminal taking a body part for a souvenir. In cases where re-growth of bone is seen, the wound would have been made before death. How long before is determined by what stage of re-growth the bone is actually in, as noted in the literature review.

Naturally, this re-growth of bone is different for different individuals, and sometimes underlying conditions can also affect how slowly bone will re-grow, just as it affects the healing of flesh wounds. However, it is relatively easy to tell whether a mark found on a bone is from an old wound that might not even be related to the crime or whether the mark is from something much more recent and sinister.

It would appear that flesh wounds would help to tell this tale, but if the crime scene is too old bones may be all that are left and therefore the marks on them could be all that an investigator has to go on in order to determine what might have happened.

Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations

Clearly, more must be done on this issue. There is very little material that is specifically related to bone morphology and cut marks, making the study of it and how it is addressed extremely difficult. The main conclusion, therefore, is that cut marks, while highly valuable in the information that they can provide to investigators, are only one tool in the arsenal of information that a crime scene investigator needs and should be studied as such.

Future research into the bone morphology issue is clearly needed so that there will be enough information for future researchers to study this particular issue more thoroughly. Until that has taken place, however, studies must look at more issues so that they can provide the reader with valid and significant information regarding crime scenes.