Slavery in Antebellum America. Specifically,

¶ … slavery in antebellum America. Specifically, it discusses the experiences and challenges of the early "slave Muslims" in antebellum America. It will also assess the impact of the Ahmadi movement in America. In what way was the movement different from other Sunni immigrant movement? Recent studies show that there were many Muslims in the slave population of the South during the antebellum years (1840-1860). The experiences of these slaves were often even more trying and terrible than other African-Americans.

They were treated harshly because of their religious beliefs, and many slave owners attempted to convert these slaves to Christianity. How they held on to their beliefs and their religion is a testament to their will and their extreme conviction to their faith. Slavery in America, that "peculiar institution" so cherished in the South during antebellum times brought slaves from Africa to the United States to mainly work on the large, cotton-growing plantations of the South.

Most of the slave trade took place on the west coast of Africa, but slaves were rounded up and brought to the west coast from all over the continent. Many of the slaves from the sub-Sahara area of the country were Muslim, and many of them ended up working on the plantations and serving masters in the American South. One historian, Jane I. Smith, writes, "It is now a well-established fact that a significant number of black Africans brought to North America during the antebellum slave trade were Muslim.

Numbers are impossible to determine, but there may have been several thousand" (Smith 76). This subject has gone unacknowledged for decades, but today, experts agree that Muslims were a central part of the slave system in the South, and contributed much to the culture and society of their slave communities on the plantations and in the cites. Many hid their religion for fear of retribution, but many more openly prayed, read the Qur'an, and urged others to join with them in their faith and their teachings.

It is interesting to note that many slave traders in Africa were Muslim too, and they did not seem to have any problem sending their fellow Muslims into a life of bondage in America. Much has been written about the slave experience in the South, from the brutal beatings to the long, tedious working hours, shacks for homes, and little free time to worship or rest. Muslim slaves suffered even more because of their beliefs.

Historian Smith continues, "Unfortunately for those who would have wished to practice their Muslim faith during the harsh circumstances of slavery in America, their Christian overlords rarely permitted it" (Smith 77). The pressure was so great on many Muslims that they capitulated and became Christians just to appease their owners and make their lives just a bit easier to bear.

Smith notes, "While most of these black Africans did indeed become Christian, documents indicate that at least a few managed to maintain their Islamic faith, continuing as practicing Muslims until the early part of this century. Generally, they had to maintain their practice in secret" (Smith 77). Some, however, simply would not give up their religion for any reason. Smith states, "Some records indicate that a few even risked ridicule and harsh punishment by continuing to pray publicly, as they understood it to be their Qur'an obligation to do" (Smith 77).

These slaves routinely refused to eat pork and prayed to their own God - Allah. There was another compelling reason that slave owners attempted to convert their Muslim slaves - fear. Many owners feared their slaves would rise up together and revolt in the name of their religious beliefs, and so, they forced their slaves to become Christians in the belief this would unite them and somehow prevent them from uprising against their Christian masters.

A group of historians note, "The fear of insurrection or revolt under cover of religion was deep and unremitting" (Waugh, Abu-Laban, and Qureshi 217). Another expert continues, "Some slaveholders believed Muslims had a disruptive impact on slave management akin to that of any self-appointed slave spiritual leader. Others felt that Muslim or not, a slave was a slave" (Owens 160). Thus, some Muslim believers did survive and even thrive in the South after the Civil War, and they created a strong and vibrant Black Muslim community that still thrives today.

It is clear the life of a slave in the South was never easy. Most slaves worked in the fields in all types of weather. Often, they had to work as a team (often called gangs) to complete complex tasks such as building fences, plowing, and many other jobs (Owens 20). While there is little documentation, it seems certain that Muslims could share their faith with their fellow workers and perhaps even convert some to their religion. The religion has grown in America since the 19th century.

Many modern Muslims have immigrated to the country, but many more still live in the South and still keep the Muslim tradition alive that began in the antebellum South with their ancestors. There was another great difficulty the slave Muslims had in keeping their religious beliefs when they came to America. Muslims do not eat pork, and pork was one of the mainstays of the slave diet. It was cheap, plentiful, and almost all parts of the hog could be (and were) used for food.

Slaves' work was incredibly difficult and they needed much energy to perform their tasks during the day. If they did not eat meat, they did not have as much energy, and this could result in punishment by their masters for not completing their assigned duties. This could mean that devout Muslims suffered even more than other slaves, because of their diet and increased punishment because of it. Life for slaves in the South was hard enough, but for Muslim slaves, it was even harder.

Today, there are many Muslim sects in America, including the Ahmadi and the Sunni. These two sects are vastly different, and the Sunnis do not accept the Ahmadis, and do not believe their faith is true to Muslim ideals.

Author Smith notes, Sunni Muslims have denounced the Ahmadiyya movement as a deviation from the true teachings of Islam, both because of its founder's claims about his own status and because Ahmadis believe that Jesus was not taken up to heaven at the crucifixion but continued his work on earth, ending up in Kashmir, in India (Smith 74). Thus, the Sunnis and the Ahmadis are quite divided, and their practices and beliefs greatly differ.

Ahmadi women generally dress even more conservatively than other Muslim women do, and they have formed many of their own schools to educate their children. They have never been accepted by the Sunni Muslims, who are the majority sect in America and around the world. The Ahmadi movement began in India in the 1880s and then spread around the world. The first Ahmadi missionary to America was Mufti Muhammad Sadiq, who came to the country in 1920 to preach the Ahmadi faith.

He settled in Chicago, began to publish a newspaper, and the windy city became the center of the Ahmadi movement in America. The first Ahmadi mosque is located in Chicago. The national center moved to Washington D.C. In 1950, and it is still there today. There are several thousand Ahmadis in the United States, and many more around the world. Perhaps the biggest difference between the Sunnis and the Ahmadis is the Ahmadi belief that Christ continued to work on Earth, rather than join God in heaven.

The Sunnis (or "orthodox Muslims") are the majority of Muslims in America (Waugh, Abu-Laban, and Qureshi 77). They "accept the entire first generation of Muslim leaders as legitimate, in contrast with Sh?'is who accept only 'Al? And his descendents" (Waugh, Abu-Laban, and Qureshi 309). They call these first four rulers the "rightly guided caliphs" and they see this early time in their religion as a time of "near perfection" (Smith 30).

Thus, there is a great gap between these two sects, and it adds to the gulf that separates Muslims and Christians in this country. Many Christians do not understand the subtle differences between Muslim sects, which can lead to misunderstanding and even persecution. The impact of the Ahmadi movement in America is far less than the impact of the Sunnis and shi'i, because there are more of these two sects than there are Ahmadis in this country.

In addition, the Ahmadis tend to be even more conservative than other sects are, and so some Americans may see them as extremists. However, the Ahmadis are extremely active in sharing their religion with others, and so, they make many people more aware of their beliefs and ideals by sharing this information. Because the Ahmadis are so active, they are also quite active in building mosques to attract worshippers.

Two experts write, "In many places Ahmadiyya mosques were the first, and perhaps are still the only Islamic mosques in the area" (Haddad and Smith 49). They are also very active in translating the Qur'an into many other languages, and creating community support including hospitals, and even institutions of higher learning. The Sunnis also have a problem with the Ahmadi belief that Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the religion, was the prophet that Muhammad said would could back to Earth to lead his people.

Ahmad declared himself the prophet, and the Sunnis feel this is another negative aspect of the Ahmadi sect, because they do not believe the prophet has returned, yet. Perhaps even more telling are some Ahmadi customs that ban their women from marrying Sunnis, and ban them from worship when a Sunni is leading the prayers. This drives a wedge between both sects and keeps them apart in ideals and in faith. Ahmadis believe they are totally within the bounds of Islam, while Sunnis think they are not.