Small Computer Systems Proposed Research

Small Computer Systems

Proposed Research Plan: Current and Future Trends in Small, Communicating Computer Systems

The topic or problem to be addressed.

Computers continue to get smaller and the evolution of processing speeds is following Moore's Law. It is reasonable to assume that at some point in the foreseeable future, the desktop computer may simply become a thing of the past. Increasingly, mobile communications devices are being used to develop informal "networks" of friends, co-workers and family members. As a result, the use of small, communicating computer systems, mostly in wireless configurations, is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to older (i.e., a few years) computer systems that do not provide the same level of flexibility and functionality for a company's growing information technology needs today. Identifying current and future trends in this environment, then, assumes a new level of importance for companies seeking to maximize their return on their scarce it resources, as well as for consumers who are seeking to identify the most appropriate wireless tool for their needs today.

The initial search domains.

To develop a better understanding of the key OS design issues associated with the small, communicating computer systems that are driven by the requirements of the application domains, the initial search will extend to scholarly online databases such as EBSCO and Questia, as well as university and public libraries; however, in view of how rapidly the industry change, additional material may be located in the popular press, but will be secondary to the peer-reviewed and scholarly sources described above. The focus of the research process will be to identify peer-reviewed articles that were published within the last 5 years, particularly for the Annotated Bibliography relevant articles that remain timely that are older than this will also be reviewed and considered for inclusion in the final project.

The key words and concepts to be used in your initial searches.

Beyond the obvious searches for material on "application domain" and "operating sytems," "small computing systems," "communicating computing systems," and so forth, additional searches will be conducted to identify sources concerning "design" and "design issues," "wireless," "information technology needs," "mobile telephony," and others that emerge during the research process.

Current and Future Trends in Small, Communicating Computer Systems

Annotated Bibliography

Arkin, H. (1991). Choosing the Right Operating System for Your PC. The CPA Journal,

This was a fairly dated source, but the author provides a comprehensive overview of operating systems and their typical applications. Even at this point in time, the marketplace was being inundated with new offerings, and the author makes two points: "more options can bring confusion and make for tougher choices" (p. 46), and, "Just for the record, there is no one, all encompassing operating system.... There is no one OS that could possibly satisfy every company's needs, and there is no stock answer for which OS will not only be the best for you, but will also be around in the future" (Arkin, 1991, p. 47)." (Arkin, 1991, p. 46). This article was a good starting point for the research process.

Cohen, D. (2001, February 1). Virtually Flirting with Love's New Language; Text Messaging on Mobile Phones Is Creating a New Language as Users Ignore Traditional Spelling and Grammar. David Cohen Charts the Rise of the SMS Culture and Asks: '1 dA Wil Nglsh B. ritN Llk This?' Daily Telegraph, 07.

The author makes the point that the overnight popularity of text messaging has been attributed to the introduction of pay-as-you-go mobile phones:

Teenagers were the first heavy users, texting each other in the classroom instead of passing around paper notes." This article turned out to be more valuable than initially thought, since it led to the identification of a shift in the social order that had not occurred to the researcher previously. "e-mail is cut down even further by the mini-missives of a text message. We are composing a new chapter in our vocabulary, thereby opening up a new channel of playful, frank and 24-hour communication." This was an excellent resource for this study.

Finn, S., & Inman, J.G. (2004). Digital Unity and Digital Divide: Surveying Alumni to Study Effects of a Campus Laptop Initiative. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 36(3), 297.

These authors surveyed the effects of an information technology initiative on undergraduates at a Western Pennsylvania college; as part of the initiative, all first-year students were provided with a wireless lap-top computer and Internet access. Not surprisingly, the researchers found that the undergraduates were using these devices extensively for academic applications (as well as some that were unrelated), but all of which tended to facilitate communications and improve student productivity. This article seemed to reinforce the perception that there is a distinct trend for universities today to incorporate wireless network applications as an integral part of their approach to educational services delivery, but this preponderance of reports in the peer-reviewed literature may be the result of more academicians writing about their experiences than their private sector counterparts who may not be so inclined to share their success stores with their competition; however, the article "Emerging Technologies" seems to support the notion that a good deal of this technology is being directed at younger students who may be more apt to embrace it than their faculty counterparts. Given its relative recentness and on-point theme, this essay was an excellent resource for this study.

Mckay, J.P. (2002, January). Hype or Hope?: 3G Technology Is on the Horizon -- the Distant Horizon. Black Enterprise, 32(6), 40.

This author provides a good overview of the interim technologies that were emerging over the past few years. Mckay reports that third-generation wireless networks, also known as 3G evolved from first-generation analog cellular networks and offer business and consumer users unparalleled experiences compared with what has been possible before. Featuring data speeds of up to 2 Mbps, 3G will allow subscribers send and receive e-mails with attachments, download songs, purchase goods and services, and even trade pictures over mobile devices. The author also reports on 2.5 and some of the devices currently in use at this point in time. A good addition to the study.

Mckimmy, Paul B. (2003). Wireless Mobile Instructional Labs: Issues and Opportunities. International Journal of Instructional Media, 30(1), 111.

Although this article was targeted to network applications in academic settings, the author provides a comprehensive overview of general wireless networking considerations and the supporting technology. This was a good resource for this study.

Current and Future Trends in Small, Communicating Computer Systems

Introduction

More and more people are using small, communicating computer systems to stay in touch with their offices, family and friends; companies are using these devices to improve their worker productivity and schools are increasingly requiring students to use them. As a result, industry leaders such as Sprint have responded in kind by developing increasingly sophisticated mobile telephones, hand-held computing devices, and other electronic gadgets that scarcely resemble the telephones of just a few years ago. This expansion of user-friendly applications can be directly attributed to the emergence of more powerful operating systems in the 1990s. According to Howard Arkin (1991), "The advanced technology of today's personal computers has given software developers the opportunity to expand the options available in operating systems (OS), the main nerve system of software applications" (p. 47). As a result, today's devices are capable of Internet access, text messaging, video conferencing and much more, and the applications continue to expand. This paper provides a discussion of the application domains that are typically associated with the small, communicating computer systems class, and how this OS design has been impacted by the requirements of these application domains. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.

Application domains typically associated with the small, communicating computer systems class.

According to McNutt, "Computers (including mobile, wireless computers) are the representatives of the newest class of machines. Examples of this kind of system include Internet applications, tablet computers, set-top boxes, cell phones, and personal digital assistants (PDAs). These machines are built as a small, portable, communicating computer, yet they should support many of the same kind of applications as desktop or notebook computers" (p. 21). The term "ubiquitous computing" has been credited to a researcher at Xerox PARC near Stanford University, Marc Weiser, (MacDonald, 1997).

In fact, Weiser (1998) has identified three distinct "waves" of computing; the first being mainframes, the second being networked PCs, and a third, yet to come, in which digital technology has become so finely integrated into everyday activities that it will be virtually indiscernible (Finn & Inman, 2004). While this sounds like so much magic (and it would appear to be so to someone from even say, the 19th century), this is clearly the trend for the future. The particular requirements that influence the small, communicating computer domain today, though, are discussed further below.

Particular requirements of this application domain.

According to Vance (2002), "The growing popularity of mobile devices (such as laptops, PDAs, etc.) has driven demand for wireless connectivity" (p. 36). One of the most dramatic changes in the use of technology in the past two years or so has been the enormous growth in the use of wireless networks for Internet and local network access (Emerging Technologies: Wireless Networks, 2002). According to Paul B. Mckimmy (2003), "The first consideration of wireless technology is bandwidth. 802.11b (one of four existing wireless Ethernet standards) is currently the most available and affordable specification. It allows a maximum of 11 megabits per second (Mbps)" (p. 111); the author adds that wired Ethernet LANs are typically 10 or 100 Mbps.

In 1997, when the IEEE 802.11 standard was first ratified, wireless LANs were incompatible and remained vendor specific; the 802.11 protocol representeded an important step towards standardization (Passmore, 2000). Wireless local area network (LAN) technology, however, has actually been in use since the late 1980s; different proprietary approaches were commonly used, and the networks operated at lower speeds (e.g., 1-2 Mbps). In 1997, though, the standards setting body, IEEE, released the 802.(11) standard for wireless local area networking using the unlicensed 2.4 GHz frequency band (as opposed to the 900 MHz band used in the past); this standard was later updated to 802.11b, which increased the transmission speed from 2 to 11 Mbps, or approximately the same transmission speed as traditional wired Ethernet connections. This is the standard that is generally referred to today as Wi-Fi ("wireless fidelity") or wireless LAN (Emerging Technologies, 2002).

Because 802.11a transmits at a different frequency, it remains incompatible with existing Wi-Fi networks; in other words, "new base stations and client cards will be needed. it's likely that vendors will offer dual-standard products, but they are not yet available. It is possible, however, for both standards to co-exist in the same environment" (Emerging Technologies, 2002, p. 6). The incompatibility issue has also resulted in still another revision of the 802.11 standard being proposed; however, this version has not yet been finalized. Currently, 802.11g also operates at 54 Mbps; however, 802.11g runs in the same 2.4 GHz frequency as Wi-Fi thereby providing for retrofitted compatibility with existing Wi-Fi networks. According to the industry analysts at) Language, Learning & Technology, "Stay tuned, since there is yet another new protocol being discussed, 802.11e, which adds QoS ("quality of service") to high-speed bandwidth, guaranteeing a reliable stream of data transmission to individual clients, vital for effective video streaming" (Emerging Technologies, 2004, p. 6).

While vendors continue to seek a mutually compatible protocol in North America, the rest of the world is proceeding at full speed in other directions and a number of other standards for wireless local networks have emerged as well, including Bluetooth and HomePNA (Passmore, 2000). Instead of being a wireless LAN, though, Bluetooth is actually a "personal-area network" (PAN); nevertheless, some analysts expect that it will surpass 802.11 WLANs in popularity. According to Passmore, "Bluetooth is a short-range radio interface for interconnecting many types of devices including mobile phones, PCs, printers, digital cameras, PDAs and devices within automobiles. It is limited to a 10-meter radius and to transmission speeds of only 1 Mbps" (p. 22). Despite these constraints, Bluetooth remains a viable contender in the wireless networking marketplace; this protocol occupies the same 2.4-GHz frequency band as 802.11, and while studies have indicated that the two technologies will be able to coexist as long as they are not in close proximity, simultaneous transmissions may reduce the throughput of each by approximately 25%. Furthermore, this author points out that it might also be technologically impossible to construct a machine that can support both standards, because the device would probably interfere with itself (Passmore, 2000). Although hundreds of vendors had jumped on the Bluetooth bandwagon a few years ago, this technology does not appear to have retained the same level of popularity of the 802.11 series.

For personal use, some potential competitors to 802.11 have included the Home Phone Networking Alliance (HomePNA) and HomeRF standards. For example, Proxim's HomeRF (marketed under the "Symphony" name), combines the 802.11b and the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) portable phone standards into a single system; the latest version (HomeRF 2.0 as of 2004) increments throughput rom 1.6 to 10 Mbps; however, it is also not compatible with Wi-Fi. Based on Intel's recent decision to not support HomeRF, this application's future remains uncertain (Emerging Technologies, 2004). According to Passmore, HomePNA devices were originally designed to allow systems to use the existing wiring for LAN connectivity; however, this retrofitting came at a high price (a rate of 1 Mbps and no mobility); HomeRF was intended to cost less, but poor performance issues have affected its development compared to the already low prices available for the 802.11 protocols, adding to the uncertainty of this protocol's future.

Finally, an IEEE 802.1a standards effort called HiperLAN2 is intended to produce the "next generation" of wireless LAN products (Passmore, 2000). HiperLAN2, developed by Nokia and Ericsson, and approved by the European Telecommunication Standardization Institute (ETSI), is similar to, but like HomeRF, it is not compatible with, 802.11a in that it uses the 5.4 GHz frequency with a throughput of 54 Mbps; however, although 802.11a is primarily a data-delivery protocol, HiperLAN2 provides built-in support for voice and video as well as offering QoS transmissions (Emerging Technologies, 2004).

According to "Emerging Technologies," "HiperLAN2 also provides for unicast, multicast, and broadcast transmissions. Most experts see it as the most advanced wireless standard currently available" (emphasis added) (p. 6). Vance points out that North America continues to dominate global sales, though, accounting for 71% of the market, while the Asia/Pacific region represented 18% of the total, and Europe/Middle East/Africa (EMEA) and the rest of the world total 8% and 2% of the worldwide total respectively. According to this author, "There are two key factors responsible for the slower rate of adoption of 802.11b in Europe. First, until recently, Europe had its own WLAN standards -- HiperLAN and HiperLAN2 --which made it very difficult for 802.11b to gain any traction. Second, 802.11b operates in the 2.4 GHz spectrum, which is unlicensed in most of the world, with the notable exception of certain European countries. In Italy, for example, 2.4 GHz spectrum is regulated by the government and therefore is licensed" (p. 37). Nevertheless, the newer 802.11a standard, which operates in the 5-GHz spectrum, appears to solve some of these problems, while also providing customers with greater bandwidth (54 Mbps vs. 11 Mbps for 802.11b) and more non-overlapping channels (eight vs. three for 802.11b) (Vance, 2002).

HiperLAN2 and the 802.11 permutations remain the two primary protocols being used in the European and North American marketplaces; however, others are under development elsewhere around the world, a situation that in many ways echoes that being experienced in the cellular telephony industry. There, Europe (and most of the rest of the world except Japan) uses GSM ("Global System for Mobile Communications") while North America has adopted analog (AMPS -- "Advanced Mobile Phone Service") and digital (CDMA -- "Code Division Multiple Access"; TDMA -- "Time Division Multiple Access"). While GSM is available in the U.S. And Canada, coverage remains limited (Emerging Technologies, 2004).

Attention in GSM is being fueled in part based on growing interest in these global compatibility issues as well interest in a newly introduced add-on/successor to GSM called GPRS ("General Packet Radio Service"); this innovation provides always-on, higher-bandwidth data transmissions/Internet access. A comparable data enhancement to CDMA is called "1xRTT," and this technology started reaching the North American marketplace last year (Emerging Technologies, 2004).

The data transmission service of analog cellular in North America (CDPD -- "Cellular Digital Packet Data") provides Internet access and has been available for some time now; CDPD already provides wide coverage in the United States, but this technology continues to be constrained by a relatively slow transmission rate of 19.2 kbps (kilobits per second), a rate that is appropriate for e-mail, perhaps, but woefully inadequate for Web browsing applications (landline modems generally operate at 56 kbps). The CDPD service is available for both hand-helds and laptops through PC cards such as Novatel's Merlin series; some of the more high-end PC cards, such as Sierra Wireless' AirCard, employ compression software to further enhance access speed. Still another - and faster -- alternative introduced in the United States has been the Ricochet network; this system operates at 128 kbps; although the network's parent company, Metricom, declared bankruptcy in August, 2001, Aerie Networks purchased the Ricochet network and has announced plans to resume service in the United States (Emerging Technologies, 2004).

Much of the attention in the mobile phone domain for the past several years has been focused on 3G, the third-generation cellular network; this approach combines high-speed mobile access with Internet Protocol (IP)-based services thereby providing faster, more reliable, always-on connections (Emerging Technologies, 2004). According to Anderson, Bikson, Hundley and Neu (2003), "Third-generation (3G) wireless is the designation applied to multimedia (voice, data, and video) cellular phones and networks that will be deployed over the next few years. These 3G cellular phones have a much larger bandwidth than the 2G phones and are expected to provide functionally useful Internet connectivity to mobile users" (p. 83). There is even a step between 2G and 3G wireless, known as enhanced second-generation (2.5G) wireless; these cellular phones have a bandwidth between that of 2G and 3G and can provide more advanced data services than 2G (Anderson et al., 2003). According to McKay (2002), "AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless recently rolled out 2.5G in Seattle. This precursor to 3G offers data speeds of up to 115 Kbps -- faster than what's possible today over mobile phones" (p. 40). at&T reported that it would have national coverage for 2.5G by the end of 2002; by the second half of 2002, it began offering 3G "lite" that provided speeds of up to 384 Kbps, and finally, in late 2003 into 2004, the company roll out it pure 3G, with speeds of up to 2 Mbps (McKay, 2002).

Anticipated data transfer rates for the 3G wireless applications range from 144 kbps to 2 Mbps; these are based on a revised version of CDMA called Wideband-CDMA (also with several permutations under development including CDMA2000 and 3 GPP) (Emerging Technologies, 2004). Telecommunication companies have invested billions of dollars to purchase licenses to operate 3G networks as well spending billions more in developing the technology and buying the hardware needed to build the requisite new infrastructure. To date, though, no viable 3G systems have been made commercially available, and only experimental trials have been made. Therefore, it appears reasonable to assert that in this area, just as in so many others in recent years, the Europeans and North Americans are going to take different approaches to arrive, perhaps, at the same ultimate destination. Such third-generation networks, though, once refined, represent an enormous benefit to the end user. "Once they arrive on the scene," the editors note, "3G networks promise to deliver broadband access through cell phones, allowing for applications such as videoconferencing and multimedia on-demand" (Emerging Technologies, 2004, p. 6).

The introduction, too, of MPEG-4, with its dramatically enhanced compression codecs, will also facilitate this transition in a process that is likely to further accelerate the development of so-called convergence devices that combine the functions of cell phones, personal organizers, hand-held computers, and even video players into a single device. According to "Emerging Technologies," "Smartphones' from Nokia and Ericsson, the forthcoming 'Stinger' phone line from Microsoft, and the recently announced 'Treo' Palm devices from Handspring are examples of this trend" (Emerging Technologies, 2004). While the last vestiges of the second generation of computing remain in abundance throughout the world, the clear trend today is that for the majority of mobile network users, wireless LAN solutions will continue to offer the primary avenue for Internet access; Wi-Fi is not expected to become a popular alternative add-on to cell phones because of the excessive power requirements of PC cards (but cards are available for both Palm devices and PocketPCs, the two dominant hand-held platforms today) (Emerging Technologies, 2004).

Not surprisingly, a number of new product are being developed that also take advantage of the Internet to make their use more attractive to consumers; AvantGo, for instance, employs a "store and forward" model to synchronize Web-based content on handheld devices. According to Emerging Technologies, "Many periodicals in a variety of languages are available for (free) subscription through AvantGo. Blackboard, a widely used course management system, has recently released a plug-in for Blackboard 5.5 which allows users to view course site content on Palms and PocketPCs through AvantGo" (p. 6). The University of South Dakota has been providing each of its first-year students with Palm devices and learning software specifically designed for hand-held use; likewise, East Carolina University has been using hand-helds and AvantGo in several humanities classes. In addition, Emerging Technologies reports that St. Olaf College (in Minnesota) has been using Palm devices equipped with AvantGo and KingKanji software to help students learn Japanese reading and writing skills. The students in these educational initiatives reported that the devices were particularly useful in practicing stroke order in writing (Emerging Technologies, 2004). The editors also suggest driven by cost reductions, such smaller, communicating computers represent the cutting-edge of the existing technology as it is popularly used today, a trend that may mean more consumers will begin using such devices as their primary Internet access source in the future. This trend is also being fueled by expanded communications capabilities by virtue of satellite connections being provided by vendors such as Starband, DirecPC, or Earthlink (Emerging Technologies, 2004).