Smoking Cessation Over the Last

Smoking Cessation

Over the last several decades, the issue of smoking cessation has been continually brought to the forefront. Part of the reason for this is the large number of reports, showing the underlying effects that smoking can have on the health of an individual. A good example of this can be seen with a variety of reports released from the 1960's to the 1990's, which corroborates that smoking leads to a number of different cancers. Then, during the 1980's scientists were able to show that smoking would lead to a variety of different ailments including: heart disease and birth defects. Yet, there are still a number of individuals that continue to insist, that the overall health risks are being overblown. Evidence of this, can be seen by looking no further than a study conducted by the U.S. Surgeon General, which found that 15% of adults believe that the effects of smoking are not harmful to you. (Koop, 2006, pp. 214 -- 218) as a result, this has led to a push within society, to persuade those individuals (who smoke) to stop this destructive habit immediately. To fully understand, the affects that various smoking cessation efforts are having requires: examining the latest tools and techniques available. This will be accomplished by conducting a literature review. Together, these different elements will provide the greatest insights, as to the total effects that smoking cessation efforts is having on this group of hard core smokers.

Literature Review

Hughes, J. (2007). Anti-Depressants for Smoking Cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Review. 1. http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD000031/image_n/CD000031_abstract.pdf

In this article, the author discusses how various people who quit smoking will often experience withdrawal symptoms, in the form of depression. To help prevent these lows, researchers wanted to see the effects that various anti-depressants would have on those who recently quit. This led to a comparison of the effects of four anti-depressants, with that of the placebo in 66 different trails. The four anti-depressants that were used included: bupropion, nortriptyline, serotonin and varenicline. The results were that bupropion and nortriptyline were: effective at controlling the effects of depression. The reason why is when someone quits smoking, the lack of nicotine will create a change in the chemical balance of the body. At which point, the person will seek out some other kind of mechanism, to fill the void left by nicotine. However, nothing will seem to fill this void, causing the onset of depression. With bupropion and nortriptyline, the person who quit smoking will not have these kinds of depressive effects, in comparison with the placebo. As a result, this has caused researchers to conclude that bupropion and nortriptyline were effective at treating depression in smokers, as these drugs will provide a similar chemical effect as nicotine. This is significant, because this information can be used to show how one of the major effects that smokers will feel when they quit is: depression. To combat this, those who quit can take bupropion and nortriptyline, to help mitigate the adverse effects when they stop smoking. (Hughes, 2007)

Lancaster, S. (2004). Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Smoking Cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3. http://academicdepartments.musc.edu/psychiatry/research/cns/upadhyayareferences/Silagy_2004.pdf

In this article, the author discusses the effects that nicotine replacement therapy is having, on helping smokers deal with nicotine withdrawals (through what is known as nicotine replacement therapy). The various forms of nicotine replacement therapy that they surveyed would include: gum, patches, nasal spray, inhalers and tablets. To determine the effectiveness of such therapies, the author would compare them with a placebo, in a sample of 123 smokers. The effects were that all of the different forms of nicotine replacement therapy would be effective at dealing with the various withdrawal symptoms of nicotine. This is significant, because it shows how there are a number of tools that smokers can used, to help ease the nicotine cravings when they first start. As a result, one can infer that with the increased amount of inhibitors, is having an effect on public cessation efforts. Where, many will believe that any someone can use the different tools to successfully quit. (Lancaster, 2004)

Athonisen, N. (2005). The Effects of Smoking Cessation Intervention. Annals of Internal Medicine. 142 (4). 233 -- 239.

In this article, the author is seeking to identify the long-term effects of cessation programs on the individual. Where, they would survey a select group of smokers over a 14 1/2-year period, to see the true effects. The results were that the majority of the people failed, to successfully quit 14 1/2 years later. However, those who managed to continue to maintain their non-smoking efforts saw a dramatic impact upon their health. Where, they were less likely to be affected by: respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease and other forms of cancer. This is significant, because it shows how challenging it can be for smokers, in remaining committed to cessation efforts. As a result, with some kind of nicotine replacement therapy, they can be able to avoid reverting back to smoking. (Athonisen, 2005, pp. 233-239)

Jorenby, D. (2006). Efficacy of Varenicline. Journal of American Medical Association. 296 (1). 56 -- 63.

In this article, the author is seeking to determine the effect and safety of: using varenicline; as an inhibitor to reduce depression, in those who quite smoking. To achieve this objective, researchers surveyed 1,413 adult smokers, over a 12-week time period. The results were that vaernicline is effective at helping to reduce the short / long terms effects of: depression and withdrawal. At the same time, the drug was determined to be safe to use, with no real side effects. This is significant, because it shows how a number of anti-depressants, can be used to help reduce the extreme mood swings that will occur when someone stops smoking. (Jorenby, 2006, pp. 56-63)

Critchley, J. (2003). Mortality Risk Associated with Smoking Cessation. Journal of American Medical Association. 290 (1). 86 -- 97.

In this article, the author is trying to determine the effects that cessation efforts will have on someone who quits smoking over the long-term. To achieve this objective: they reviewed various studies and conducted interviews with the researchers, who participated the different studies. The results were that the majority of respondents', who remained smoke free, saw a dramatic impact in their overall levels of health. With their chances decreasing dramatically of being affected by various forms of: cancer and cardiovascular diseases. This is significant, because the information can be used to corroborate the long-term positive benefits that cessation can have, on those who quit smoking and remain committed to this goal. (Critchley, 2003, pp. 86-97)

Lanchaster, S. (2005). Individual Behavioral Counseling for Smoking Cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2. http://www.thecochranelibrary.com/SpringboardWebApp/userfiles/ccoch/file/World%20No%20Tobacco%20Day/CD001292.pdf

In this article, the author is seeking to identify the effects that individual counseling can have in cessation efforts. To determine this, researchers would survey 30 different research trials and over 7,000 respondents. The results were: that nearly 95% of respondents who attended one on one counseling, reported improved self-confidence. When you are trying to quit smoking, this helps to improve the chances that the individual will be successful. As these people, have the confidence and support, to help prevent them from reverting back to smoking. This is significant, because it shows that for any kind of anti-smoking efforts to be effective, there needs to be some form of counseling, to help improve the odds of success. (Lancaster, 2005)

Stead, L. (2006). Telephone Counseling for Smoking Cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3. http://www.thecochranelibrary.com/SpringboardWebApp/userfiles/ccoch/file/World%20No%20Tobacco%20Day/CD002850.pdf

In this article, the author is seeking to understand if telephone counseling is effective in helping to support anti-smoking efforts. To determine this, researchers are looking at the results of 65 different trials, which surveyed 24,000 respondents. The results were: that telephone counseling help lines, do have an impact in supporting someone who is trying to quite smoking. However, in order for these programs to be effective, researchers found that those who are trying to quit smoking need to have contact with the telephone counseling service more than two times. There also needs to be, some kind of literature sent out the individual such as: self-help materials. When you use telephone counseling in conjunction with other tools; this can dramatically improve the chances that the person will be able to quit smoking. This is significant, because it shows how various telephone help lines, can provide effective support to someone who is trying to quit smoking. While it is not the end all solution, it can be used with the other tools, to have the greatest impact possible. Once this takes place, the odds increase dramatically that someone will be able to never return to their old habits. (Stead, 2006)