Reinforcing structural inequality through socially constructed difference

¶ … socially constructed? How do we reinforce structural inequality? What are the theoretical foundations and types of oppression? What are the different levels of oppression?

Allan G. Johnson's "The Social Construction of Difference" discusses the creation and maintenance of difference in society through systemic privilege for the dominant "normal" class and systemic oppression for the subordinate "abnormal" class. In every one of the 7 categories of race or ethnicity; gender; religion; sexual orientation; socioeconomic status; age; and physical or mental ability (and more subcategories), the dominant class has systemic privilege while the subordinate class has systemic oppression. This "socially constructed reality" is accepted by the members of that society as somehow objectively true. Finally, except in the rarest of circumstances, each individual is dominant in some categories while subordinate in other categories: for example, a white woman living in the U.S. is dominant in the category of race but subordinate in the category of gender. The overlapping of an individual's dominance in some categories and subordination in other categories is known as the individual's "social location," which defines the way that individual experiences and interacts with his/her world.

Structural inequality is reinforced through internalization, externalization, systemic practices and formal legal/political forces. As Tatum points out in "The Complexity of Identity," internalization of the "normal" dominant class traits and the "abnormal" subordinate class traits in the 7 categories (and other categories) in members of a society strongly supports and perpetuates the inequality as objective truths. Externalization of those same traits is supported and perpetuated by interactions on the Meso level, according to Kirk's and Okarawa-Ray's "Who Am I? Who Are My People?" As others at school, the workplace and the community quickly label and treat the individual according to his/her dominance/subordination in one of the 7 categories. Structural inequality is also reinforced systemically. "Structure as the Subject of Justice" by Iris Marion Young discusses the way in which the numerous "normal and accepted" actions of millions of people in different positions can create, support and reinforce an unjust social structure: while individuals and organizations may be simply acting within the social parameters given to them, the results are oppressive to classes in subordinate groups. For example, the housing situation may be the result of individuals and organizations acting as allowed and perhaps situationally needed in society, yet the result is a housing situation systemically rigged against people in subordinate classes. Finally, Johnson's "The Social Construction of Difference" speaks of formal legal/political structures that stack the social deck for a dominant group and against a subordinate group. For example, the formal legal/political designation of Mexicans as "white" in the 19th Century but "nonwhite" in the 20th & 21st Centuries formally brought to bear the powers of law and politics to create, support and reinforce differences in how Mexicans would be treated within society.

Lee Anne Bell's "Theoretical Foundations" analyzes theoretical bases of oppression. Oppression is pervasive because it is entrenched in individuals and laced through social institutions. It is also restrictive in that it works within social structures and material resources to constrain the chances and possibilities of a person in a subordinate class. Oppression is also hierarchical in that it consists of a dominant, favored class through the subordination and disadvantage of the subordinate class. It is also complex, multiple and cross-cutting relationships in that it gives relative prejudices and disadvantages according to an individual's position within the 7 categories (and other categories) mentioned in Tatum's "The Complexity of Identity" and depending on the social context. It is internalized, accepted as objectively true by the dominant and subordinate classes in all categories. It is manifested in a series of "isms" such as racism and classism, which have their own histories, characteristics, patterns and reinforcements.

As Iris Marion Young explains in "Five Faces of Oppression," the types of oppression include violence, exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, and cultural imperialism. Violence, the most obvious type of oppression, is intended to damage, humiliate or destroy a subordinate person and subordinates justifiably fear random, unprovoked attacks on themselves or their property. Exploitation is the use of people's labor to produce profit without fairly compensating them. In Capitalism, which highly values free trade, exploitation tends to create classes of "haves" or advantaged and "have-nots" or disadvantaged. Marginalization is consigning a subordinate group to lower social standing and/or the edge of society in which they are excluded from activities, privileges and jobs, usually based on race. Powerlessness is when a dominant group so rules and indoctrinates a subordinate class that members of the subordinate class are not allowed to develop their capacities, not allowed to make decisions, are treated disrespectfully and often come to so accept such treatment that they do not realize they are oppressed and/or believe they do not matter. Finally, cultural imperialism is establishing the culture of the advantaged and making it the norm for all. In America, cultural imperialism made the culture of white, Judeo-Christian, English-speaking, heterosexual, able-bodied males the norm.

There are 3 major levels of oppression: individual, cultural and institutional. Oppression exists on the individual level for both dominant and subordinate people in internalized beliefs and attitudes, his/her socialization, behaviors and interpersonal interactions. It is on the cultural level in terms of the values, norms, needs, language, standards of beauty, sex roles, logic, expectations and things as mundane as holidays. Finally, it is on the institutional level in vital areas such as housing, employment, education, healthcare, religion, law/politics and the media.

2. How is our identity constructed? What is the "Cycle of Socialization?" How do we learn and reinforce prejudice? What are the levels of identity? What destructive influences does prejudice have? Why do people resort to stereotyping and essentializing? What are the payoffs for people who began together to produce acts of prejudice and discrimination?

Difference is socially constructed on individual, family, community, state, national and global levels. "The Complexity of Identity" by Beverly Daniel Tatum addresses the multiple sources of an individual's identity, all combined in a person's self-reflection and observation to form his/her identity. Tatum states that there are at least 7 categories of "otherness" that contribute to a person's identity: race or ethnicity; gender; religion; sexual orientation; socioeconomic status; age; and physical or mental ability. Each of these 7 categories has a related form of oppression: racism; sexism; religious oppression; heterosexism; classism; ageism; and ableism. Tatum states that with so many "other" categories, most if not all of us are dominant in some categories while subordinate in others. "Who Am I? Who Are My People?" By Gwyn Kirk and Margo Okarawa-Ray discusses the two levels of identity. An individual feels greater comfort on the "micro level" from being himself/herself and associating individuals who share as many of his/her categories as possible. At the more expanded "Meso level" at school, in the workplace or on the street, an individual constantly encounters others asking questions about his/her place in those categories in order to quickly classify the individual and themselves for themselves.

As Bobbie Harro explains in "The Cycle of Socialization," our socialization is achieved through a pervasive, consistent, circular, self-perpetuating and often invisible cycle. The characteristics comprising the core of this cycle are fear, ignorance, confusion, insecurity, power or powerlessness. Each individual is born with characteristics and into established systems without having any say at all about them. Some characteristics and systems assign individuals to a "target group" of subordinates who are devalued and oppressed by the society. The first socialization occurs with the individual's family or the adults raising him/her. These people help shape our concepts and perceptions both intrapersonally (or how we think about ourselves) and extrapersonally (how we relate to others). They are role models and give us many messages about the 7 major categories (and other categories) that are unquestionably accepted about ourselves and others. Institutional and cultural socialization stems from our interactions with institutions outside the family, such as schools, churches, hospitals and the legal system. The more institutions we encounter, the more socialization sources we have. Those institutions also give us models and messages, some of which support the socialization from our family and some of which contradict it. At least some of those messages support and justify oppression of subordinate groups or "target groups" by stereotyping and essentializing. Stereotyping is a standardized, oversimplified image held by one group about another group, such as "All women are terrible drivers" or "All married men cheat on their wives." Essentializing is attributing "natural" and essential characteristics to people in a specific culturally defined group, such as "All blacks have rhythm." People use stereotyping and essentializing to quickly categorize other people and to have the comfort/privilege of an uncritical, conformist, socially supported sense of belonging and possibly superiority. These biased messages come from numerous institutional sources, such as media, speech patterns, religious beliefs and social assumptions. Enforcements are in place to reinforce the stereotypes by rewarding or at least leaving alone conformists while labeling nonconformists as trouble makers. When used against "target groups," the enforcements use subordinate group examples of nonconformist behavior to label the entire group as inferior. When used against members of the "agent group" (groups privileged by the stereotypes) try to support members of the target group, they are punished. The Results are devastating consequences of internalized oppression by target groups who participate in their own oppression by devaluing themselves, engaging in destructive behaviors and learning helplessness. The results are also devastating to the "agent group" by causing guilt for oppressing, fear of payback for oppressing, collusion in the oppressive system, ignorance, high stress and loss of contact with the target group. The "Actions" phase of the cycle brings us to decisions of what to do next: nothing or active participation in the oppression, both of which advance the oppression; or action against the oppression.

Harro's "The Cycle of Socialization" explains that we reinforce prejudice through participating in or doing nothing about the oppressive cycle of socialization that stereotypes and denigrates "target groups," rewards conformity and punishes nonconformity. "Structure as the Subject of Justice" by Iris Marion Young discusses the way in which the numerous "normal and accepted" actions of millions of people in different positions can create, support and reinforce an unjust social structure: while individuals and organizations may be simply acting within the social parameters given to them, the results are oppressive to classes in subordinate groups. For example, the housing situation may be the result of individuals and organizations acting as allowed and perhaps situationally needed in society, yet the result is a housing situation systemically rigged against people in subordinate classes. Finally, Johnson's "The Social Construction of Difference" speaks of formal legal/political structures that stack the social deck for a dominant group and against a subordinate group. For example, the formal legal/political designation of Mexicans as "white" in the 19th Century but "nonwhite" in the 20th & 21st Centuries formally brought to bear the powers of law and politics to create, support and reinforce differences in how Mexicans would be treated within society. The payoffs for those who produced these acts of prejudice and discrimination were favorable treatment in vital areas such as housing, employment, education, healthcare, religion, law/politics and the media, built on unfavorable treatment of subordinate groups in all those areas.

3. Describe the nature and history of racism in America. How do we enforce racism through the possessive investment in whiteness? What is dysconscious racism? What are the three pillars of white supremacy and how are they related? Does Discrimination still exist? Give three examples.

As Iris Marion Young explains in "Five Faces of Oppression," cultural imperialism is establishing the culture of the advantaged and making it the norm for all. America was chiefly settled by white, Judeo-Christian, English-speaking, heterosexual, able-bodied males; cultural imperialism made the culture of white, Judeo-Christian, English-speaking, heterosexual, able-bodied males the norm. As members of other groups arrived (by self-will or force), they were absorbed into and used by the dominant group. This included black people, who were brought as slaves to further the economic interests of the dominant group and were denoted with subhuman characteristics to rationalize their subhuman treatment. Due to the powerful cycle of socialization and individual, cultural and institutional racism, plus the powerful economic interests in keeping blacks subjugated as slaves, slavery continued until Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. Furthermore, due to the internalization of oppression by blacks and the external reinforcement of oppression by the cycle of socialization and individual, cultural and institutional racism, more than 150 years after the Emancipation Proclamation and despite civil rights legislation and enforcement, may blacks still have not attained equality.

"The Possessive Investment in Whiteness" by George Lipsitz explores the enforcement of racism against African-Americans, Asians, Native Americans and other nonwhite races from our earliest settlements in the New World. Whites stereotyped and essentializing other races, setting up cultural and institutional systems, including the legal system, which systematically used, dispossessed, brutalized, enslaved, excluded and outright paid for the murder of groups who were not white, for one trumped up reason or another. Those practices are not confined to bygone generations, either. The implementation of the New Deal tended to funnel limited resources and privileges such as money, housing, healthcare and pensions toward whites. These tendencies have continued with implementations of such supposedly well-intentioned institutions as Housing and Urban Development. Furthermore, the backlash from resentful whites cause more legal difficulties for African-Americans, regressive policies defunding education and social welfare policies and tax regulations that consistently increase the value of being white, to the detriment of anyone who is not white. "The Real Problem with Indian Mascots" by Kimberly Roppolo addresses America's ingrained racism against American Indians, oppression that is so entrenched in the American consciousness that it is imperceptible. Roppolo uses the term "dysconscious racism" to explain racism of which even the racists are unaware and gives the Indian Mascot as a prime example.

In "Heteropatriarchy and the Three Pillars of White Supremacy," Andrea Smith explores the three pillars upholding institutional advantages for whites. The first pillar is slavery, built on the logic that black people are property and inherently slaveable, whether as outright slaves in the pre-Civil War cotton fields or as inmates in the modern prison industrial complex. The form of slavery has changed in our history but the fact of slavery persists. The second pillar is genocide, built on the logic that Native Americans are vanishing (or have vanished) and therefore non-Native Americans become the rightful heirs of all they owned, whether land, resources, spirituality or culture. The third pillar is Orientalism which defines whites as superior in opposition to more exotic, inferior and constantly threatening Oriental people. As a result, the United States is in a constant state of declared or undeclared war against these "threats" to the empire. All these pillars sustain white supremacy and power within the United States: Orientalism means the U.S. is constantly at war and the status quo, which regards blacks as slaveable property and Native Americans as vanishing, maintains white supremacy and institutions as essential to the safety and well-being of America. These pro-white-and-anti-other institutions and attitudes mean discrimination still exists, whether in the overrepresented black population in our prisons (a modern form of slavery), the struggle of Native Americans to rightfully reclaim indigenous lands taken, theoretically returned by treaty but never actually returned to them, and the anti-immigration movements currently afoot across America and in Congress against non-white, foreign "threatening" people.

4. How does classism cause oppression? Use essays in book.

In the Introduction to the "Classism" section of our book, Maurianne Adams discusses the wide gap between the American Dream of a classless society in which upward mobility was possible through ability and hard work vs. The reality that people in the lower socioeconomic classes of America have a far poorer chance of mobility. The chasm between the higher socioeconomic classes and the lower socioeconomic classes has been brought into sharp focus by our most recent Recession, in which the upper classes continue to exert enormous power over our political and legal institutions, giving the upper classes the lion's share of economic capital and social capital. Meanwhile, the lower classes are denied mortgages, loans, educational opportunities, etc. The benefits to the upper classes and detriments to the lower classes are supported by the delusion that we live in a meritocracy in which ability and hard work determine who gets the goodies. An excellent example of classism's powerful effect is discussed in "At the Elite Colleges" by Peter Schmidt. Schmidt argues that contrary to their publicity, many of the top universities cater to the white, privileged people who do not meet stated academic standards. Though Universities publicize their minority and lower income admissions, well-qualified low income and minority students are often squeezed out of admission by the universities' acceptance of privileged white youth with cash and connections. According to Schmidt, this practice is killing the social mobility that is supposedly a hallmark of America, possibly leading to the mediocrity of our leaders who come from the privileged classes and the hopeless resignation of the less fortunate who realize that hard work and ability really will not get them anywhere. "What's Debt Got to Do with It?" By Brett Williams discusses financial classism whereby fringe financial "services" are situated in poor neighborhoods and offered to low income or credit risk people at an enormous cost. Much of classism's financial oppression is backed by corporate giants like Citicorp, Ford Motors and other wealthy financial institutions that package the loans and sell them on Wall Street, in large part to remedy their own fiscal responsibility by siphoning off as much money as possible from low income people.