Sport psychology: theory and practice

Sport Psychology

Most forms of games require not only physical skills but also a very strong mental capacity and these include golf, tennis and skating. According to the view of most coaches, sports are 90% mental and 10% physical. This is very important in athletics where even a difference of a hundredth or a tenth of a second can be the difference between champions and ordinary athletes. The requirement of an extra edge is very important. Thus many psychological techniques are being used by athletes to take them up to the next level. There are uses of imagery in solving different problems in sports is in mental practice of particular performing skills, enhancing confidence and encouraging positive thinking, solving problems, having control over arousal and anxiety, review and analysis of performance, preparing for performance and maintaining mental clarity even after the athlete has been injured. (The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance)

The origin of sport psychology was with Singer in 1978 when he defined it as "the science of psychology as applied to sport." (Using the weapons of Sports Psychology in Athletics) Sport psychologists provide two major services - performance enhancement strategies and counseling for several issues that affect sportsmen. Even today, all performing athletes have direct access to qualified sport psychologists, but they may be able to learn a lot from published research. The reason for the recent development is that the development of psychology as a scientific discipline itself began in 1879, but sport psychology branched off much later, about 30 years ago. American Psychological Association recognized the Division of Exercise and Sport Psychology only in 1985. There is still a lot of research that has not reached the athletes. Some of the services provided by sport psychology are "imagery training, arousal management or attention focus, substance abuse management, relaxation training, motivational strategies, competitive pressure management and programs" for successful retirement from sports. (Using the weapons of Sports Psychology in Athletics) The importance of sport psychology is that actual event is not the most difficult part of competition for many athletes, but the period leading to the event. There are many poor memories for athletes due to poor performances in the past. (Performing your best... When it counts the most!) These memories lead them to have doubts about their own ability to perform well during the present competition. This leads to mental pressure on them.

Theories of self- talk

For athletes it is a continuous challenge to improve on their past performance. Along with this they face a frustration that they have identical or even superior physical attributes when compared to their competitors who turnout to be eventual winners. In many such cases it has been seen that the main cause for the victory of the eventual winner is that those competitors believe that they are superior and will win. Thus the athletes who do not win are those who do not have faith in their own ability to perform better than the competition that they are facing. Yet the competition is the same for most challengers that they face. At the same time, it has been seen that the faith of any human being in any area of their ability to perform will ultimately be the result that will achieve in that area - positive, negative or stagnant. Thus it is very important to change this belief which is limiting the performance of an athlete to a positive belief - a belief that will improve the performance of the individual. (Belief, self-talk and performance enhancement)

According to research by psychologists and neuroscientists that there is a continuous ongoing dialogue within every human being and this is at high speed - between 150 to 300 words a minute. This adds up to 45,000 and 51,000 thoughts a day. (Belief, self-talk and performance enhancement) A lot of these talks are about day-to-day jobs like a need to stop at the cleaners, or buying some item. When these thoughts turn to suggesting to the individual that he is not as good an athlete as a competitor, or negating his own capacities like feeling that he is not as tough as another competitor, or degrading his own capacities like saying that he is not fast enough, then the thoughts start harming his capacities as a sport person. The regular and ongoing self-talk end up as reinforcement for the individual's own belief in his own limited capacities. It is like a self-fulfilling prophecy.

The entire lack of performance is due to stress and the process of stress in humans has two main reasons - the first is that they feel threatened by the situation and the second is their own lack of faith in their ability to meet the challenge. The amount of stress to an individual depends on the individual's judgment of the harm that the situation can cause them and their belief in their own capacity to meet the challenge, or at least proceed to a reasonable level. For all these situations, the key for judgment is the perception as the situations are not stressful in their own capacities. The stress is felt according to the perception of the individual. In some cases, the judgment of the affected individual may be correct, and the situation may be a physical threat or a social threat or a threat to a career. Stress and emotion are part of the early warning signs for these threats that tell others about the threat having started. (Thought Awareness, Rational Thinking and Positive Thinking)

The result of the threat often leads to harshness with one's own self. This harshness is a part of the totally negative thinking that is the reason for stress and unhappiness. Ultimately it leads to undermining of self-confidence. The negative thinking comes in the form of worries for the future, demeaning yourself, continuously highlight own errors, doubt own capacities and finally expecting failure. This is negative thinking which damages confidence and harms performance. This negative thought is often not continuous but comes, does the damage and goes out again. The harmful effect remains though persons do not realize the reason. The process of becoming aware of the processes inside your mind is called 'thought awareness.'

One method of finding out about it is to think of a stressful situation and at that time do not suppress thoughts or feelings. Whatever happens, write them down when they occur. To maintain a regular record is writing this down in the stress diary. The advantage of maintaining a stress diary is that in the end a person has made a note of all unpleasant matters that have caused stress even for periods of one or two weeks. The form of stress is in negative thoughts and anxieties, unpleasant or difficult memories and situations perceived as negative by the person maintaining the diary. These will then have to be evaluated. After a record of negative thoughts have been made for some time, then when one goes through them during a normal period, he will find patterns in the negative thinking that has been noted. Some of the thoughts will be seen to come frequently and causing most damage. These have to be tackled first, and you can manage thoughts only with a stress diary as you cannot manage thoughts without being aware of them. To find out negative thoughts look at all the thoughts and challenge them. In many instances it may be noted that negative thoughts are due to feelings of inadequacy, feelings that performances will not be adequate, and anxieties about the reaction from others. This leads to the next step of challenging the negative thoughts. (Thought Awareness, Rational Thinking and Positive Thinking)

Regarding feelings of inadequacy the questions to be asked are whether the training and teaching has been enough for the competition; whether the experience and resources available are enough; has the planning, preparation and rehearsals been enough, etc. If all these are adequate then the probable standards set by the competitor are probably too high and unattainable. The next set of worries is regarding performance, and for this the first question is regarding the adequacy of training. Another area of worry may be planning for the meet, or information and resources, fixing up the time and informing it to the support teams, preparation, etc. If these have not been done, then it is important that it is completed urgently. Once these are completed then the person is ready to give the best possible performance.

Another set of worries may be regarding events outside the control of the individual and these are with contingency planning. For this purpose, the matter has to be thought over and become prepared to handle all possible contingencies. The last set of worries is about the reactions of other people, but there is not much requirement to worry about this. An individual can only perform as good as his capacity, and once that is done, then others have to be satisfied. There may be unfair comments from others, but there is no point in thinking about the methods of replying to them. The important point is to think about the comments and see if there is any substance in the comments. When there are some valid points, then action has to be taken. In such cases, negative thinking may provide useful leads. When rational thinking has been used to correct negative thinking, rational positive thoughts may also be prepared. Sometimes useful opportunities are provided through the entire process of thinking. (Thought Awareness, Rational Thinking and Positive Thinking)

What are the important thoughts of an athlete before an important race? This answer may provide the answer to the performance of the athlete. It seems that more scientific discoveries about the power of thought are resulting in more knowledge about performances. It is not known that thoughts of an athlete or his talk just before a race can affect his result. These often lead to knowledge about his negative attitudes which may arise from fear, intimidation, lack of self belief, etc. These come as all the results of performances by the individual is recorded in his memory, in the inner recesses of deep memory. This part of memory lies within the subconscious mind and that is our control center for all movement. This means that if an athlete thinks negative thoughts before a race, the athlete is likely to get a negative result. (Mind Training Tips for Swimmers)

On the other hand, if an individual tries to develop positive thoughts, then it is likely that a positive result will come. One of the ways of doing this is to re-focus the mind to something positive and this is done through an affirmation of belief in capabilities. This technique is not new, and the method is just repeating and saying something repeatedly for many times before the race. The way this helps is that it focuses the person's mind into some positive aspects and stops negative aspects from coming in. An example of this could be focusing on 'speed and power' or 'perfect rhythm'. The greatest boxer of yesteryears, Muhammad Ali used to do this with his famous slogan, 'I am the greatest'. (Mind Training Tips for Swimmers)

There is great importance for overcoming of mental blocks if the person is trying at top level of competition for a high level of performance. Mental preparation is one of the most important factors for being ready to perform. There has been a lot of research on the subject and some effective plans developed. One of them is to develop a pre-competition routine and this is to use images of the competition and see oneself perform excellently in the competition. This includes achievement of pre-set goals. The second step in this is to use a plan for the competition itself and visually see oneself achieve the pre-set targets. This image is to be used before the competition actually takes place. The third step is to control distraction and this is achieved by using things like listening to music so that possible diversions by any number of other people or events can be avoided. The final step is the use of feedback or evaluation. This is achieved through seeing of visuals on video or some other medium of past performances and comparing them with the last performance. This will help in preparation for the next performance. (Performing your best... When it counts the most!) There are many methods that can be used and all of them are used by the best athletes of the world. Yet, like all other skills they have to be learned and practiced before being put into action. These are required for the athlete to be able to rely on them. Relaxation, visualization or imagery, self-talk, goal setting, motivation and video review are all techniques that are used by athletes.

Theories of imagery

Mental imagery has to be practiced by individuals in their own way and depends on individual preferences and the circumstances under which it is adopted. The imagery can be practiced either on or off the field. These can be for a short duration, or a long duration; while sitting up or lying down; in complete silence or with a background of music; and with the eyes closed or open. It is the choice of the individual. For games like tennis which go on for some time, this may be done by the player even while the game is on but the ball is not in play. The player can visualize where he or she wanted to hit the ball, or even practice it, without the ball. When a player is in a quiet room before an important game, he should engage himself or herself in an exercise of visualization for the game ahead. To be able to do this, the players should be relaxed and receptive as that will also help the images to penetrate deep inside their minds. It is important that visualization is repeated - about two or three times a week. (The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance)

Some sportsmen also practice imagery during other activities like bike rides, lifting weights, rowing, etc. In these cases, physical activity is going on while the mental game is on and it helps more during competition. A study was conducted by Anne Isaac to examine the influence of mental practice on the skills of sportsmen. Earlier studies on this matter had also shown positive effects that were achieved due to mental rehearsal, but those tests had not been carried out on sportsmen who were participating in sports on field, but on others who were learning the skills. When Isaac carried out the experiment, this shortcoming was removed. In her tests there was also the test whether persons with better images and control over images end with better results. The test was carried out on 78 individuals and they were all classified as either novice or experienced trampolines performers.

The group on whom the experiments were performed was further divided into two groups - experimental and control. The individuals within the group were also classified into persons with high or low imagers based on their initial skills in imagery. Then both the groups were put into training for a period of six weeks during which they were to be trained in three skills. So that individuals within the group did not influence the opinion of the experimenter, the members of the group were not known to the person till the experiment was over. The set among the group first practiced the particular skill for 2-1/2 minutes, and then engaged themselves in 5 minutes of mental practice. This was followed by another 2-1/2 minutes of physical practice after the mental exercise. The other group also practiced for 2-1/2 minutes and then had some mental exercises of an abstract nature, without concentrating on imagery. This could be mathematics problems, puzzles, etc. Then they also practiced the skill again for 2-1/2 minutes. At the end of the period, the gain in skills by both sets was compared, and it was seen that there was a sizeable difference in the skills gained by the high imagers when compared to the low imagers. The initial level of skills were similar in both the groups consisting of individuals within the experiment and those as control, but the high imagery group showed better performances in both groups. As may be expected, the group for the experiment had better performances than the control group. The results of this study clearly showed that visual imagery is effective whatever be the initial level of skills of the person to whom it is applied. (The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance)

There have been efforts by sport psychologists to understand the reasons behind the exact working of mental imagery. For this numerous theories have been developed, but no single theory is universally accepted. The first of the theories was proposed by Carpenter in 1894 and the theory is called psycho-neuro-muscular theory. This is not only for sport psychology, but for human behavior. According to this, imagery rehearsal practice develops motor patterns in mind which are then duplicated during physical practice. Another important theory is the symbolic learning theory and there are some differences in this theory with the previous theory. This says that the effect of imagery is not due to muscle activation but due to the opportunity to 'practice the symbolic elements of the motor task.' Thus the knowledge gained from imagery is a process of cognitive learning. The third theory is called the arousal/activation theory. According to this, through the practice of imagery, the person concerned will achieve a level of arousal that is the best for performance. The function of 'arousal' is to prime the muscles and that results in a lowering of the sensory threshold of the performer and thus enables a better performance.

There was also a theory by Peter Lang and that is an information-processing model of imagery. This assumes that any image is a functionally organized, definite set of propositions housed in the brain. This does not view an image as a stimulus in the brain to which there is a response from the body. The view states that image also has stimulus propositions which describe an image of the scenario that is likely to take place. The other part of response propositions describes the response of the imaginer to the scene. Lang further says that the image contains a motor program with an instruction for the imaginer to react appropriately to the concerned image. Thus the image becomes a template for direct response. It is also accepted that modifying of either overt behavior or vivid imagery will finally result in a change of the other. Another theory for the action is from Suinn - visual motor behavior rehearsal. (The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance)

This theory depends on the concept that imagery is a holistic process which has an element of complete reintegration of experience. This experience is in the areas of visual, auditory, tactile, emotional and kinesthetic cues. The scientist has shown that physiological responses can come from the usage of mental imagery by an athlete. This theory is one of the few which has an amount of solid evidence to back up the propositions that have been given. There has been a further development of this model and this lays stress on psychophysiology. This theory provides specific meanings for any image. The name of this model is Ahsen's Triple Code Model of Imagery. According to the person who proposed this model, there are three parts in any image. The first part is that an image has to be a centrally arousing sensation and that makes it feel like the real world.

An image has all the qualities of sensation, but the sensation is only internal. At the same time, the image is very real to the imaginer and thus the image has enough realism to enable the imaginer to interact with it like the imaginer reacts to the real live world. The second part of it is that for the image there is a somatic response, and the existence of this results in psycho-physiological changes in the body of the imager. The third part of the image comes from the meaning of the image. According to theories, every image contains a significant meaning and the interpretation of this meaning is done by the individual. Thus it may convey different meanings as every individual has a different background and upbringing. This makes it possible for different images to result from the same set of situations in different individuals. (The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance)

The question is however that how can this be shown? For this one requires biofeedback equipment to be available. When a person imagines a scene reducing stress through a scene of pleasant and relaxing situation, the result will be in the form of a reduction in the measured stress. On the other hand, when the scene imagined is full of stress, and then one will see that the stress levels in the body will rise. When any individual sees this for the first time, then the results can look to be very alarming. This provides for a use of imagery in reduction of stress through imagination of a scene or place or event that is safe, peaceful, restful, beautiful and happy. This permits the individual to bring out all the senses into the image - with imaginations of sounds of running water, sounds of birds, smell of cut grass, taste of cool white wine, gentle warmth of the sun, and so on. The imagined place can be used as a hideaway from stress and pressure that one is often subjected to. The images can be developed with thoughts of lying on a beach in a sandy cove. Mentally one can see cliffs, sea and sand nearby, and hear the sounds of the waves that are coming in. (Imagery- Mental stress management)