Tajikistan's history from ancient Persia through the Samanid era

Tajikistan

To the north of Tajikistan lies Kyrgyzstan, to the west lies Uzbekistan, to the east lies China and to the south lies Afghanistan. This state was formed due to the split of Central Asia in 1920 under Soviet rule. It covers an area of 143,100 sq. km. [1]

Early history

Soghdiana, the northern part of today's Tajikistan, was settled by Iranian tribes between 1,000 and 500 BC. Important cities of Tajikistan today Khujand and Panjkakent belonged to Soghdiana in ancient times. During their tarvelling to China and to the west, Soghdians adopted other religions such as Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Bhuddism and they also shared their knowledge with people whom they met on their way. During sixth to fourth centuries B.C, Tajikistan belonged to ancient Persia's Achaemenid Empire that was ruled by Darius I. In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered it. [2][3][4]

Arab rule

In early Eighteenth Century, Islamic Arabs became the rulers of Tajikistan. The Arabs increased the Islamic circle in that region by converting people to Islam. This change of faith was made by motivations, willingly approvals and by the use of power. The spread of this religion was so rapid that it became the most practiced religion in the nineteenth century. This was the era during which commercial trade with China from Central Asia boosted. Also, Central Asia became Islamic hub numerous preachers.[2][3]

The Samanids

After the Arabs rule in Central Asia, Samanid era started. It was a Persian speaking principality and it lasted from 875 to 999. Persian language enjoyed great progress during this period. The Samanids paid great devotion to blossom this language. Bukhoro, was labeled as the school of learning and center of cultural progress by the Persian communities of the east. The ultimate end of the Persian reign came when the Qarakhanid Turks conquered the land in 999. [2][3]

The culture of pre-Islamic Iran was unspoiled by Samanid literary. Urbanization was done to a great extent during this period. The outmoded customs and traditions were modernized. Moreover, the urban centers of the past including Bukhara, Samarqand, Khujand were rejuvenated. This made the political, economic, social and cultural advancements in the Samanid state. Innovation was highly valued by the Samanids. They provided resources and opportunities for education of the public. [2]

Sciences prospered during the Samanid reinforcement. Medicine, Mathematics, Geography, Astronomy, History and Philosophy gained popularization. Besides this literature flourished which helped in improving the social habits of the masses. Improvement of economy and well-being of the people was emphasized upon. [2]

Academic magnates of the Samanid Era

During this prosperous time some great scholars lived in Tajikistan who are well-known as pioneers of modern developments today. Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi Hisab al-jabrw'al-muqabala, a book referring to the methods of solving equations and mundane problems, is the master piece of Al-Khwarazmi. Algebra, which forms the basis of various formulae and mathematical equations today, is the prodigy of scientists like Al-Beruni, Ibn-e-Sina, Buzjani and Sijni. Al Beruni is a renowned scholar of practical aspects of physics while Ibn-e-Sinamastered in theoretical dimensions of physics and acoustics. The founder of applied physics, Muhammad Zakariyyah al-Razi, was also denizen of this time. He is known for inventing net weight of matter. Ibn-e-Haitham, gave founding concepts of Optics. [2]

The revival of the arts and sciences headed to the establishment of learning centers called madrasahs. They were built on the architecture of University of Gurdishapur in Iran.The building of learning centers introduced the concept of libraries where information was stored and retrieved from. One such library was Sivan al-Hikmat in Bukhara. These learning centers contained documents including translations from Greek and Syriac languages on philosophical aspects as well as the research works and theories of contemporary scholars likeAl-Beruni and Ibn-e-Sina. [2]

The Turks

In the start of ninth century, Turkish population started migrating to Central Asia. The arrival of these Turks was at peak in the eleventh century. These Turks initially worked as slaves in armies of the Samanids but later they got the commanding positions which led to the demise of the Samanids. [2]

These Turks were influenced by the prevalent Persian Culture of southern Central Asia which is now Tajakistan. Over the generations they changed their life style from rural nomads to urban inhabitants. Turks and Persians intermarried which eventually led to cultural blending. [2][3][4]

The Mongols

The Samanids were out thrown by the uncontrolled influx of the Mongols in Central Asia. They ruled from 1219 A.D. To 1370 A.D. During Mongol rule, the Persian language was used as the state language. It was used in government and literature. The Mongols made forceful changes to the prevailing affairs of Tajiks. They almost stopped development in agriculture and hindered urban expansion. The local reign was abolished and Yasa was enforced in place of Sharia'ah. Yasa was imposed so as to establish anti-Muslim policies. The primary cause of doing this wasto discourage Central Asian from revolting against Chaghtai Khans. Due to such policies, the Tajiks were bounded to either migrate abroad or to make their habitats in isolated highlands. [2][3]

The Timurids

After the Mongols came the Timurids. They were headed by Tamerlane, originally known as Timur and his heirs. The Timurids, unlike Mongols, supported scholarship, the arts, and literature. [3]

The Uzbeks

The start of the sixteenth century was marked by Uzbek conquest of Central Asia. But soon after its establishment, the Uzbek state suffered from instability.

After the dissolving of Golden Horde, a Mongol and later Turkic political entity, the decline of the Tajiks started. The Oguz Turks, who entered Central Asia in tenth century and made their settlements in Transoxiana, were joined by the constituent tribes of Golden Horde. They took control over Tajiks farms and became farmers. Due to this scenario, the Tajiks had to take shelter in the highlands leaving their cultural hubs, Samarqand and Bukhara. [2][3]

The Russians

The Uzbeks were followed by the Russians who in late eighteenth century Russians dominated both the Turks and the Tajiks. During the Russian reign, Uzbek-Turks worked as governors and tax gatherers.[2]

The Tajiks belonging to Fergana and Zeravshan valleys were brought under the regime of Russia due to Russian conquests in Central Asia. In 1868, the emirate of Bukhara was declared as the Russian territory. In the early nineteenth century, three states namely Bukhoro Khanate which was ruled by Uzbeks, the Quqon (Kokand) Khanate, centered on the Fergana Valley and the kingdom of Afghanistan were formed. These territories together are now called Tajiskistan. Several discrepancies and fights took place between these territories concerned to acquire control of the strategic areas. During all this time Tajik cultural domination waned so much so that in 1920 the Tajiki language became obsolete to be used as the official language of the Emirate of Bukhara.[2][3]

Economic crises and Civil War

After the independence in 1991, Tajikistan faced disastrous problems. Since it was separated from Soviet Union, it encountered an abrupt economic downfall. Due to its exclusion from the rubble zone, cash crises were observed which were further worsened by Russia. They withhold the payments to Tajiks on cotton shipments because Tajiks were already indebted to Russia. [4]

Once liberation was accomplished, commotion occurred which ultimately weighed down the newly formed country into civil War. Communists and an alliance of Islamic and democratic forces fought with each other to gain power. RahmanNabiyev, a communist, won the presidential elections of November 1991. However, his government was not accepted and nonaggressive protests by the opposition elements were observed in March 1992 demanding his resignation. The situation worsened when in April the government opened fire on the protesters. Nabiyev was thrown way from his office in September by the opponents. The civil war came to an end when in November ImomaliRakhmonov formed a government supported by Russian troops was formed. [6]

The civil War caused substantial loss of life and property. Close to about 600,000 people lost their lives and were left homeless. A great loss of education was made. Estimate damage of U.S.$7 billion was reported. [4]

Until June 1997 periodic fights persisted. A peace agreement was enforced by the United Nations, Russia, and Iran which ended the war and maintained a state of social rest in the country. However, the unstable political situation in the country since after its independence caused the country to be dependent on foreign aid. In 1991, Rakhmonov was re-electedfor another term. [6]

Present day problems of Tajikistan

After the dismissal of Taliban in 2001, resolute Islamic extremists crossed the border, unsettling life and economic conditions of Tajikistan. [6]

Furthermore, the collapse of Taliban government led to an upsurge in narcotics production in Afghanistan. As a result, Tajikistan became a major transportation hub for Afghan heroin and opium regulated for European markets and other parts of the world. [6][1]

President Rakhmonov was again elected for the third time in November 2006. But the results were boycotted by the opposition parties. His government has been alleged of several human rights exploitations and dishonesty. Also true democracy has ot been observed during his reign. Independent media has been restricted and opposition leaders have been imprisoned.[4]