Teacher Leadership - Literature Review

Teacher Leadership - Literature Review Introduction In the past few years, the relationship between the school principal and teachers has emerged as a critical relationship necessary for the continued educational opportunities of students, the growth of teachers, and the success of the educational system as a whole. The available literature on this topic reveals the importance of the perception of teachers regarding their relationship with the principal, and these studies clearly indicate that improved education for all students requires a well-balanced relationship perception. A review of the literature reveals that there is a large difference in the perceptions of teacher leaders regarding their relationship with principals and the relationship as perceived by the principal. Therefore, additional studies are necessary in this area to correct the perceptions of the teachers relationship with the principal, as the perception of this relationship affects the quality of individual teacher instruction, the height of student achievement, and the overall degree of efficiency in school functioning. Education & Training A review of the literature in the area of education and training indicates that principals are responsible for the implementation of any educational reforms and stand in a unique position to challenge the ways schools do business and motivate teachers to develop and learn the new approaches to teaching and learning that are demanded through the government's reform. However, the literature reveals a gap between the actual role of the school principal and what the role of the principal needs to be with regard to education and training. Research studies mention the lack of education, training, and time for the instructional leadership role, for leadership activities being set aside for more immediate problems, and includes the increasing volume of paper work. Additionally, public expectations for the principal's role are mainly managerial and, to a principal, this appears to be a safe and comfortable role. In studies by Barnett and McCormick (2004), each school is responsible for resourcing levels, both financial and staffing, and for the systematic evaluation and reporting of the outcomes of educational programs and goals each year. Principals are responsible for the implementation of any educational reforms and stand in a unique position to challenge the way schools do business and motivate teachers to develop the new approaches to teaching and learning that are demanded through the government's reform. Barnett and McCormick acknowledge that the study did have several limitations, such as the reliance on the perceptions of teachers with respect to leadership and school learning culture. This reliance on a single source may bias the relationships reported. A conclusion of their study was that six dimensions of school culture were identified: task focus goals, excellence in teaching, favoritism, personal expectations for teaching, task and performance focus instruction. One of the most important findings of their study was that most of the variation in teachers' perceptions of leadership occurred at the teacher level, and a smaller but significant amount occurred at the school level. This result suggests that one-to-one relationships between a principal and individual teachers mainly characterize leadership in schools. Barnett and McCormick (2004) also stated that the active principal must be aware that individual concern is not simply being helpful and considerate toward teachers. A principal demonstrates individual concern when he or she approaches each teacher individually with respect and fairness. The principal must also be assessable to teachers, support, encourage, and recognize individual efforts. They must also provide direction and guidance based on individual needs and development. The results of other studies have also mirrored these issues. The selection of principals was additionally addressed. This selection should include a process to identify those who have a history of exhibiting the interpersonal skills consistent with individual concern. A visionary principal clearly defined expectations of teaching excellence to teachers. Thus, in the area of education and training, since the since the principal is the leader who sets the direction of the school, the principal's skills with people are crucial to the success of the position. To develop positive relationships, there are essentially four areas of interpersonal skills that need to be mentioned: trust, motivation, empowerment, and collegiality. As the literature indicates, without trust on the part of the teachers toward the principal, a positive relationship perception cannot be built. Secondly, a principal position involves motivating others and one way to accomplish this is through a process of sharing the decision making. In relationships where power is viewed as a reciprocal unit of exchange, people can become committed, significant, and competent through promoting empowerment. As teachers are the players most affected by change, empowerment enables them to identify obstacles and design strategies for dealing with change. Collegiality promotes idea sharing, project cooperation, and assistance in professional growth, all of which benefit the students. Finally, the teacher and principal relationship must be enhanced with education and training for both parties. Professional Development The professional development of the teacher and principal is also related to the research on education and training. Youngs and King (2002) state that a prominent way in which principals shape school conditions and teaching practices is through their beliefs and actions regarding teacher professional development. They state that individual teacher competence is necessary for effective classroom practice, and that teachers must be able to integrate knowledge of students, subject matter, and teaching context in planning out units and lessons and assessing student work. The studies discussed by Young and King (2002) examine the relationship of capacity to instructional quality and student achievement. Findings from the study by Youngs and King (2002) indicated that effective principals can sustain high levels of capacity by building trust, creating structures that promote teacher learning, assist in the implementation of general reforms. Their study results also suggest that during transitions in school leadership, incoming principals must be cognizant of shared norms and values among their faculties before initiating new practices into the curriculum, instruction, or school organization. Research on effective schools indicates that the principal is pivotal in bringing about the conditions that characterize effective schools. There are three major forces that serve to shape and describe a school; the public, the staff and the students, and that these forces interact through the curriculum. Youngs and King (2002) concluded that principals can enhance teachers' knowledge, skills, and dispositions and other aspects of school capacity by connecting teachers to external expertise. Their research defined the set of professional development activities in which a faculty participate to include: 1) Planned professional development for the entire staff; 2) Planned professional development for individual teachers or key groups of faculty within the school; and 3) Unplanned activities, some of which are individualized and some of which are common to the entire faculty or to key groups of faculty. Youngs and King (2002) determined that research has also demonstrated higher student achievement to be associated with higher levels of school professional community and program coherence. The literature in the area of professional development indicates that in conducting future studies of principal effects, it may be useful for researchers to employ professional community and program coherence as mediating variables between principal leadership and student achievement. Collaboration between Teachers and Principal Research by Marks and Printy (2003) examined the relationship between principals and teachers and the potential of their active collaboration around instructional matters to enhance the quality of teaching and student performance. They base their analysis around a comparison of two concepts of leadership; transformational and instructional. Marks and Printy state that transformational leadership provides intellectual direction and aims at innovating within the organization, while empowering and supporting teachers as partners in decision making. Instructional leadership, on the other hand, replaces a hierarchical and procedural notion with a model of shared instructional leadership. The findings of the studies by Youngs and King (2002) are comparable to those of Marks and Printy. Both believe that instructional leadership involves the active collaboration of principle and teachers on curriculum, instruction, and assessment. The principle and teachers share responsibility for staff development, curricular development, and supervision of instructional tasks. The studies by Marks and Printy (2003) differed in the aspect that they were able to study the relationship of transformational and shared instructional leadership to the quality of teaching and learning. This mode of instructional leadership provides for learning and working with others; teachers, students and parents to improve instructional quality. It is the principle's responsibility to create a strong school culture, enabling teachers to collaborate with them in redesigning the instructional program so that all students can learn. The research in the area of the relationship between teacher and principal in collaboration revolves around the perception of the relationship in the future. The research indicates that the role of the principal in the future will be to encourage collaborative groupings of teachers to play a more central role in the instructional leadership of the school. This will require active participation of the principal to facilitate change by motivating the staff and students, by reaching out to the community, and by continually improving the school. This includes teacher empowerment in which teachers have significant input into decisions concerning instruction, under the theory that well managed schools enable real instructional leaders to empower teachers who can create the effective schools reformers are seeking. The Teacher and Principal Relationship with the Principal as Leader Research indicate that the primary role of the principal is that of the school "leader." The decision a principal makes concerning the issue of instructional leadership and the extent to which that principal develops the skills needed to exercise appropriate instructional leadership will influence what does or does not happen in classrooms throughout the country. Marks and Printy (2003) agree that the importance of the instructional leadership responsibilities of the principal cannot be ignored, nor can the reality that good leadership skills are seldom practiced. Principals require information and skills in order to support practices of instructional leadership in their schools. They need to know what effective instructional leadership is and how to become an effective instructional leader. Tasks to be accomplished encompass those of supervision and evaluation of instruction, of staff development activities, of curriculum development knowledge and activities, of group development knowledge and activities, of action research, of development of a positive school climate, and of the creation of links between school and community. Research on the perceived relationship of the principal as the school leader indicates that there are two skills of an effective instructional leader; technical skills and interpersonal skills. Technical skills include goal setting, assessment and planning, instructional observation, research and evaluation; whereas, interpersonal skills are those of communication, motivation, decision making, problem solving, and conflict management. Instructional leadership encompasses those actions that a principal takes, or delegates to others, to promote growth in student learning. It also comprises the following tasks: 1) defining the purpose of schooling; 2) setting school-wide goals; 3) providing the resources needed for learning to occur; 4) supervising and evaluating teachers; 5) coordinating staff development programs; and 6) creating collegial relationships with and among teachers. The term instructional leader clearly describes the primary role of the principal in the quest for excellence in education. To achieve this quest, it will take more than a strong principal with concrete ideas. According to Marks and Printy (2003), instructional leadership emphasizes the technical core of instruction, curriculum and assessment, provides direction and affects the day to day activities of teachers and students in the school. Finally, the literature regarding the principal as leader acknowledges there is no single definition of instructional leadership nor specific guidelines or direction as to what an instructional leader does. Marks and Printy (2003) concluded that past understandings of school leadership have failed to meet two functional tests; 1) that leadership promotes organizational improvement and 2) that it is sustainable for the leaders themselves. Their study demonstrates the effectiveness of integrated leadership in eliciting the instructional leadership of teachers for improving school performance. Effective principals are managers and instructional leaders; instructional leadership functions involve all the beliefs, decisions, strategies, and tactics that principals use to generate instructional effectiveness in classrooms. In order to meet the rapidly changing needs of our students, teachers must be given the authority to make appropriate instructional decisions. Therefore, the basis for school leadership must include teachers and parents, as well as the principal, in the role of problem finding and problem identification. Principals, then, become the leaders of teachers, those who encourage and develop instructional leadership in teachers. Teacher and Principal Perceived Relationship Research by Blas? (1999) analyzes the teacher - principal perceived relationship, demonstrating that in effective principal-teacher interaction about instruction, processes such as inquiry, reflection, exploration and experimentation result. Blas? states that teachers build repertoires of flexible alternatives rather than collecting rigid teaching procedures and methods. The Blas? (1999) research was conducted via talking with teachers in and outside of instructional conferences; according the Blas? study results, principals used five primary talking strategies with teachers to promote reflection: 1) making suggestions; 2) giving feedback; 3) modeling; 4) using inquiry and soliciting advice and opinions; and 5) giving praise. Another important aspect of an effective teacher leader and principal relationship from the Blas? data was the promotion of teachers' professional growth with respect to teaching methods and collegial interaction about teaching and learning. The Blas? (1999) research also supports the theory that the principal - teacher relationship plays a crucial role in promoting an environment within the school that is conducive to student learning. The Blas? (1999) research also stresses the importance of the fundamental human needs for trust, support, and professional interaction. This research also reveals that teachers have a strong need for growth, such as engaging in continuous collaboration, reflection, and critical thinking, which can best be supported by a positive relationship perception between themselves and their principal. According the to Blas? study, effective instructional leaders used six teacher development strategies: 1) emphasizing the study of teaching and learning; 2) supporting collaboration efforts among educators; 3) developing coaching relationships among educators; 4) encouraging and supporting redesign of programs; 5) applying the principles of adult learning, growth, and development to all phases of staff development; and 6) implementing action research to inform instructional decision making. Their results found that principals who were effective instructional leaders provided former staff development opportunities to address emergent instructional needs. These opportunities resulted in innovation and creativity, variety in teaching, risk taking and positive responses to student diversity as well as effects on motivation, efficacy and self-esteem. Thus, the literature in this area indicates that the perceived teacher and principal relationship is conducive to the strategies and methods taken by the teachers. This perceived relationship is important because the principal is the key figure in promoting an environment within the school that is conducive to student learning. Such an environment is positive and the school's environment impacts on all, not just the students. It takes the combined effort of both the principal and the staff to identify factors that create and, also, those that inhibit the development of a positive climate. Then, it takes cooperative teamwork to develop strategies to promote the desired climate or to overcome the inhibiting factors. The Blas? (1999) research also stresses the importance of the fundamental human needs for trust, support, and professional interaction. This research also reveals that teachers have a strong need for growth, such as engaging in continuous collaboration, reflection, and critical thinking. The more positive the perceived teacher-principal relationship is, the more positive the actions of the teachers will be. Impact of the Teacher & Principal Relationship on Student Achievement The perceived teacher-principal relationship has also shown to have a significant impact on student achievement. Schools exist in the heart of each community, and school-community links are a mutually beneficial relationship in which the principal can play a leading role. The community can assist the learning climate of a school in many ways such as providing direction in recruiting volunteers to help at school functions, in class presenters, in a mentorship function, and in a sense of stability. It is a recognized fact that student achievement is higher when parents display interest by being actively involved in their children's education. Parents and community groups can be included in decisions that the school makes. Such activities promote within students a sense of responsibility and service to their community or, on a larger scale, to their country. The research indicates a positive result on student achievement where the teacher and principal relationship is a positive relationship that fosters growth and allows creativity. Research by Witziers, Bosker and Kruger (2003) examined the possible impact of the principal's leadership on student achievement. Their results show that that the positive effects are small; however, those in the field also recognize that the measures used in the studies are not perfectly reliable, and therefore the association between the impact of the principal and student achievement may be drastically underestimated. Furthermore, Witziers, Bosker and Kruger (2003) acknowledge that a small effect may still be very relevant. More refined analyses show that there is no evidence for a direct effect of educational leadership on student achievement in secondary schools. In the studies by Witziers, Bosker and Kruger (2003), a variety of explanations can account for the reasons why the tests of the effects model have been inconclusive. The research suggests that context and immediate factors should be taken into account in future research. For example, Barnett and McCormick (2004) examined transformational approaches to leadership in schools. Their research suggested that the effect of leadership on student learning outcomes is mediated by school conditions such as goals, structure, people and school culture. Their results indicate that a relationship between leadership and school culture does exist, and they highlight the importance of individual principal-teacher relationships in schools. According to Barnett and McCormick (2004), in order to meet the rapidly changing needs of our students, teachers must be given the authority to make appropriate instructional decisions. Therefore, the basis for school leadership must include teachers and parents, as well as the principal, in the role of problem finding and problem identification. Principals, then, become the leaders of leaders: those who encourage and develop instructional leadership in teachers. At the root of decisions surrounding curriculum lies one's educational philosophy. Because of this, even curriculum experts cannot agree as to what is the "right" way for students to be taught nor how learning takes place. Decisions about a good school, an appropriate curriculum, and needs of students should be made by those closest to students. To have realistic teacher expectations concerning curriculum implementation, one should be knowledgeable about the areas of curriculum development. Just as the formats graduate in their appropriateness from lower levels of learning, through the intermediate, these levels can correspond to the teacher's stage of development. A new teacher with limited experience and practical knowledge may benefit most from a behavioral-objective format. However, the amount of choice given to a teacher must be factored in. The behavioral-objective curriculum may be used as a resource or it may be developed by a particular teacher or staff. As the research indicates, curriculum is developed at many levels through outside specialists, school division specialists, school curriculum groups, and teachers working in collaboration. Teachers, depending on their abstraction, expertise, and commitment, would be involved in implementing the curriculum on different levels. Principals, on the other hand, would not be directly involved in the short-term goal, but would be involved behind the scenes when dealing with the teacher. Finally, with the strong support of a good principal, a highly abstract, committed, and expert teacher can have freedom to pick, choose and create their own plans, based on a carefully thought out philosophy in terms of teaching processes and understanding. Thus, although the research in this area appears to be inconclusive, principals at some point do have an affect on student achievement. Assessment of the Teacher & Principal Relationship The teacher and principal perceived relationship has also been accessed by forms of surveys and questionnaires. Assessment begins with educational values and should be part of the ongoing process of teaching and learning, not an add-on exercise at the end (Nuhfer, 2001). The end goal of this type of assessment is aimed at continuous understanding and improvement of student learning. As a result, assessment of the supervisory process in a school setting involves the measures of results, evaluation of the processes that lead to the results, and a commitment to promote change for the better (Nuhfer, 2001). Complete assessment of principals by teachers employs both summative and formative evaluations. However, evaluation is only a part of assessment and must be balanced by support in order to obtain continuous improvement. Formative evaluation refers to structured evaluation that is provided while the course is ongoing so as to permit improvements. Formative surveys of teaching practices examine process and define a "fingerprint" of the professor's teaching style, which can outline specific areas for improvement (Nuhfer, 2001). Formative evaluation is typically conducted during the development or improvement of a program or product and it is conducted often more than once, for in-house staff of the program with the intent to improve. The reports normally remain in-house; but serious formative evaluation may be done by an internal or an external evaluator or preferably, a combination; of course, many program staff are, in an informal sense, constantly doing formative evaluation. The purpose of formative evaluation is to validate or ensure that the goals of the instruction are being achieved and to improve the instruction, if necessary, by means of identification and subsequent remediation of problematic aspects. There is a need for additional research studies that employ assessments of the teacher and principal relationship. Teachers Understanding of Principals' Priorities There is also a misperception regarding the teachers understanding of principal's priorities. The majority of principals report that they are doing an excellent job in such key areas as encouraging students to achieve, respecting the people in the school, being a good listener and being a visible presence in the school, but fewer than half of teachers or parents rate their principal highly in these areas (Bagnaschi, 2004). In a study conducted by the Harris Interactive (2004), teachers' understanding of principals' priorities and how principals spend their day is also very different from what principals themselves report. According to the study, in the aspect of encouraging students to achieve, 35% of teachers reported the principal as performing "an excellent" job; whereas, 59% percent of principals reported themselves as performing an excellent job. In the aspect of being a visible presence in the school, 38% of teachers rated the principal as excellent; 67% percent of principals reported themselves as excellent. According to research by Bagnaschi (2004), teachers believe that principals spend more time on reporting and compliance than on guiding and motivating teachers; principals report the opposite emphasis in how they spend their time. The satisfaction between teachers' jobs and the actions of principals was also examined in another study conducted by Harris Interactive. In the study, teachers who are satisfied with their jobs were more likely to be satisfied with their relationship with their principals. Satisfied teachers also reported more frequent contact with their principals in individual meetings (25% vs. 13%), informal conversations (80% vs. 63%), and by being observed during instruction (20% vs. 7%). Finally, teachers who are satisfied with their jobs as compared to those that were dissatisfied, rated their principal as excellent in performance as a leader (32% vs. 15%), commanding a visible presence throughout the school (41% vs. 17%), and supporting teachers (35% vs. 16%) (Harris Interactive, 2004). Research by Berman and McLaughlin (1975) implies that a well- balanced, positive relationship with the principal by the teacher leader powerfully affects the teacher instruction. Teachers need the sanction of their principal to the extent that the principal is the "gatekeeper of change (Berman & McLaughlin, 1975)." Research by Fullan (1991), support this theory, stating that the principal is the person most likely to be in a position to shape the organizational conditions necessary for success, such as the development of shared goals, collaborative work structures and climates, and procedures for monitoring results. Research focusing on the individual relationship between teacher and principal reports that this relationship has become increasingly strained with growing emphasis on teacher empowerment, pupil minimum competency, collective bargaining, reduction in teacher force, increased litigation, and accountability (Barth, 1990). Research on teacher stress had examined the perceived relationships between teacher leaders and principals as a factor for high teacher stress levels. One such study assessed teacher stress and leadership style in three primary schools; teachers reported significantly lower levels of stress in the schools where the principal was classified as high in both task and relationship focus (Jarvis, 2002). This leadership style was generally associated with both strategic vision and with a close personal relationship with the staff (Jarvis, 2002). Research by Hoel (1999) reports 35% of teachers reported having been bullied by a principal in the last five years, as opposed to an average of 24% across all occupational sectors. Conclusion As a review of the literature in this area indicates, perceived relationships between teacher leaders and principals are closely tied to the educational success of the school overall. The general principal position involves motivating others and one way to accomplish this is through a process of sharing the decision making. In teacher - principal relationships where power is viewed as a reciprocal unit of exchange, people can become committed, significant, and competent through promoting empowerment. As teachers are the players most affected by change, empowerment enables them to identify obstacles and design strategies for dealing with change. Society is beginning to recognize that the perceived relationship between teachers and their principals must undergo drastic change. Evidence of this will be found within the expectations of the local school divisions and the school boards, and these expectations will settle into the schools. However, additional research is necessary in this area to thoroughly study the teacher and principal relationship and support the conclusion that there exists a gap between the actual relationship and the perceived relationship. Bibliography