Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: assessment and development

Test Reviews Description
Purpose: It serves as a tool for qualitative assessment of certain markers of intelligence and development in humans of various ages: from age two and beyond. The focus of the test is on cognitive functions and expected level of intelligence, based on age. This implies a wide range of applications, including the detection of learning disabilities, mental retardation, mental advancements/superiority, and other cognitive related variations. Also, results from this test can be used for developing intervention approaches, family and education plans, and career assessment: either prediction for adolescents or clarification/motivation for adults (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Learning Areas: The test is distributed to cover five specific aspects of cognitive functioning: Fluid Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, Verbal Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Reasoning, and Working Memory. These are further extended into subtests, which are administered in combination, depending on the goal of the test administration. Some of the common subtests include the following: Vocabulary, Pattern Analysis/Recognition, Memory for Sentences, etc. (Roid & Pomplun, 2012). Target Population: Humans from Age Two and Beyond Intended use of test: To assess intelligence and cognitive functioning in people of all ages. The primary version was intended to measure cognitive disabilities in children, but it was later extended to discovering gifts of intelligence and other mental abilities across all ages.
Administration: It is an individually administered test that can also be monitored or conducted by a psychologist. The average duration of the test is approx—1 hour and 10 minutes: between 45 minutes and 90 minutes (Caruso, 2001).
Scores: There is an expected “general reasoning ability” that is a total of all the scores obtained from the administered subtests. The “general reasoning ability” is considered as the inherent capacity of the test subject to solve unique problems (Caruso, 2001). The overall score obtained from the test is thus considered as an estimate of the test subject’s cognitive reasoning capacity.
Title: The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition (SB: FE)
Author: Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon of France (on the initial development of the Binet scale), and Louis Terman of Stanford University (for later contributions and modifications).
Publisher: various publishers have been involved across all editions of the test development.
Copyright: StanfordBinetTest.com.
Criterion-referenced: change-sensitive scores (CSSs)

Development
The test originated from France through Alfred Binet per request of the French government. To start, Binet and Theodore Simon (Binet’s student) conducted qualitative experiments to establish a baseline for intelligence among French kids. This led to the standardization of the Binet scale, which was considered a viable tool for measuring intelligence in France at the time. Louis Terman of Stanford University, however, considered the adaptation of the test in the United States. Louis’ version of the test was aimed at discovering children with superior intellect, a sharp contrast with the original version that sought to identify children with low intelligence: for intervention measures. Eventually, various versions of the test have been achieved to date with an extension of testing criteria across various ages and aspects of human endeavor: military recruitment, school applications, and special needs assessments, etc.

Technical
Standardization: In standardizing the test, various editions have incorporated features across its development. The finals standardization sample was also conducted with a sample population of “n = 4,800” across a diversity of age, socio-economic category, race, sex, and geo-location (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Reliability: The test offers various forms of reliability testing: standard error of measurement, test-retest stability, inter-scorer agreement, split-half reliability, etc. Depending on rigor, the test can also be administered bi-annually to account for variations in reliability (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Validity: The idea of validity is based on a standardized metric within the testing region. This ensures the fairness of elements included in the test for eliminating bias. Empirical justifications and evidence have also been used to unify the determination of “general reasoning ability,” especially across the verbal/non-verbal sections of the test (Bain & Allin, 2005).

Commentary
The newest edition of the Stanford-Binet test (SB5) has significantly been improved over the previous versions. The major significance of the test, as compared with other measures of IQ, is its unique application of Item Response Theory (IRT) and evaluation of non-verbal factors in intelligence. Overall, the SB5 implements a “functional-level” evaluation factor along with the point-scale format of previous editions. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Description
Purpose: To assess the Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) or Intellectual Ability of children between ages 6 through 16.
Learning areas: The test incorporates five primary test elements: verbal comprehension, fluid reasoning, processing speed, working memory, and visual-spatial reasoning. These test areas are enough to access the overall discrete cognitive domains of the test subject. Alongside, ancillary composite scores are obtained through a combination of primary and secondary testing criteria. This can be useful for identifying specific impairments or advancements in cognitive functioning, depending on the intention and variation of the test.
Target population: Children between ages 6 and 16 years.
Intended use of test: To determine the Full-Scale IQ of children between ages 6 and 16. This can be especially useful for identifying learning disabilities like dyslexia in school kids (Wechsler, 2014).
Administration: Individually administered, and it can be in a pencil/paper or computerized form. Administration takes an average of 55 minutes, but this can be shorter or longer depending on the exhaustiveness of the tests and subtest criteria.
Scores: Full-Scale IQ, Index Scores, and Subtest Scaled Scores
Title: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children® Fifth Edition (WISC®-V)
Author: David Wechsler
Publisher: Pearson Canada Assessment, Inc. 
Copyright: Pearson Canada Assessment, Inc. 
Criterion-referenced: Cognitive Linguistic Quick Test (CLQT™+)

Development
The Wechsler test was developed over five years of contributions and collaborations among a team of experts: including doctorate-level scientists and clinical psychologists. The main goal was to identify the main markers of intellectual ability, learning disabilities, and child neuropsychology among the intended test population. This test can also be used to examine and diagnose Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Technical
Standardization: The most recent (and standard) version was conducted across a population of “n = 2,200” children between ages 6 and 16. The children were chosen across 11 age groups and a variety of age, sex, race, parents’ education, and religion.
Reliability: This was ensured using the Split-half reliability testing method for the subtests. The average results across all considered groups ranged between 0.86 and 0.97 (Watkins, Dombrowski & Canivez, 2018). This implies an internal consistency of the test across all the groups measured with a potential for inference in other arbitrary combinations.
Validity: According to the results obtained through correlational studies, the corrected correlation between corresponding subtests of the Wechsler test ranged between 0.5 to 0.74. The primary test criteria also had correlations with KTEA-3 composites ranging from 0.12 to 0.77. Overall, consistency with standardized assessments of cognitive ability was found across all elements of the test.

Commentary
Certain flexibility comes with the Wechsler test, especially through the availability of a larger set of subtests. This extends the reach of the evaluation capacity of this test over its contemporaries at identifying overall cognitive capacity in children of ages 6 through 16. Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment Description
Purpose: This test is a play-based assessment tool for evaluating the behavior, development progress, and needs of children between ages 0 and 6.
Learning areas: The assessment is based on the following domains of child activity: cognitive, social-emotional, communication, language, and sensorimotor. This assessment intends to focus more on the capacity of the child at performing tasks, as opposed to the inability (Linder & Bixby, 2010).
Target population: The assessment is for children from birth to 6 years of age.
Intended use of test: For evaluating developmental factors in children between ages 0 and 6, especially for identifying their capacity and potential requirements for early-childhood intervention measures.
Administration: The test is individually conducted: the test subjects (children) are systematically observed in a structured, semi-structured, or unstructured play scenario. The test takes an average of 75 minutes (between 60 and 90 minutes).
Scores: Test scores are across the major domains and ancillary domains: cognitive functioning, educational concepts, emotional and social interaction, adaptive behavior, motor, speech, and language.
Title: Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment, Second Edition (TPBA2), and Transdisciplinary Play-Based Intervention, Second Edition (TPBI2)
Author: Toni W. Linder Ed.D. 
Publisher: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.,
Copyright: Brookes Publishing Company
Criterion-referenced: TPBA is not a criterion-referenced assessment

Development
This assessment approach was developed by Toni Linder, and it is currently in the second edition (TPBA-2 & TPBI-2). The current edition extends the initial approach, at translating observations of natural play activity of children into qualitative markers of development, through the inclusion of intervention strategies and planning measures (McWilliam, 1994).

Technical
Standardization: There is no standardization to this assessment approach; it is an informal technique.
Reliability: Not available.
Validity: Not available.
Commentary
It must be emphasized that a holistic evaluation of child functioning should be considered during the application of this assessment, as opposed to the immediate examination of singular aspects that might be readily obvious during observation. The second edition TPBA-2 offers this holistic approach to evaluation (Linder, 2010); however, like the previous version, the validity and reliability are not yet empirically evident. Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP) Description
Purpose: This is a curriculum-based assessment for identifying developmental processes in children up to 3 years of age, with the intention of intervention via a plan-based strategy. Children are accessed in areas of motor cognition, language, social interaction/development, self-help, independence or emotional attachments, etc.
Learning areas: The test is targeted at six main aspects of child development that can be observed through their play activities (at that age): cognitive, communication, gross motor, fine motor, social-emotional, and adaptive/self-help.
Target population: Ages 0 – 3 years.
Intended use of test: Identification of the strengths and needs of infants (ages 0-3), especially for developing interventions and support. It is also family-centric, with an emphasis on the participation of parents in the support and monitoring process (Aschallhorn, 2015).
Administration: Informal administration involving observations by single or multi-disciplinary pediatrics. The parents are also included in the intervention approaches.
Scores: The scoring system distributes points across various aspects of child development, with the scoring depending on age. The regulatory/sensory aspect of the test is used for the classification of test-subjects in three categories: under-active, typical, and over-active.
Title: Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP® Birth to 3, ©2004)
Author: Unknown (VORT Corporation)
Publisher: VORT Corporation
Copyright: VORT Corporation
Criterion-referencing: None identified

Development
The original curriculum and materials for this assessment were developed and implemented by a multi-disciplinary pediatric team called the Enrichment Project for Handicapped Infants in 1971. The HELP materials include charts and activity guides that can be used for conducting observations and evaluations. The initiative was promoted through a federal demonstration and training project, and the initial project was directed under the guidance of the School of Public Health, University of Hawaii. Funding was provided through the Bureau of Education of the Handicapped, and skills considered in the project were extended across 685 skills and behavior advised by a multi-disciplinary team. Recently, additional HELP materials have been included in promoting better intervention approaches and activities.

Technical
Standardization: The test includes guidelines and examples for conducting observations according to the intention of the original initiative. The skill/behavior criteria for assessments include those that might be easily observed from children of target ages in their natural play area (Aschallhorn, 2015). To make the test more robust, the guidelines also include adjustments for children with certain types of disabilities or special needs.
Reliability: Not available
Validity: Not available

Commentary
Strengths: This assessment tool has its strengths and weaknesses, which must be considered in its application. Its main strength is that it includes the family in the overall intervention process, which makes the task more inclusive. Also, it accesses a wide range of skills/behaviors (600+), and this allows for a broader sphere of inference or deduction.
Weaknesses: The HELP tool is not peer-reviewed and has no empirical evidence to support its claim of effectiveness. Its reliability has not been quantified, and administrators require specialized training across various elements of administration and grading.
Clinical Applications: It is mainly expected for use in early-intervention programs for children that have exhibited certain suspicious traits of abnormality in their development. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children | Second Edition Normative Update (KABC-II NU) Description
Purpose: This test is aimed at discovering the cognitive capacities of children, specifically between the ages of 3-18 years (pre-school through high school). It is used for identifying learning disabilities, educational placement and planning, assessment of child neurology, and researching child development (cognitive).
Learning areas: The test features 18 various subtests, which have two central themes: core and supplementary.
Target population: 3 years to 18 years
Intended use of test: This test is meant to be applied in a school or clinical setting. The school application is aimed at discovering children with learning difficulties or disabilities for early or planned interventions. Clinical applications can foster research or can also be targeted at school interventions. This test can be administered across language barriers, with an example of a Spanish version for children that speak Spanish natively (Drozdick, Singer & Lichtenberger, 2018).
Administration: The test is individually administered through a pencil-paper assessment. Depending on the model employed, the test can differ in duration: the Luria model takes about 25-55 minutes, and the CHC model takes around 35-70 minutes.
Scores: This test features scores and subtests based on the age group. There are two main composite intelligence scores associated with the second edition (standardized) of this test: The Fluid Crystallized Index (FCI), which applies the CHC model, the Mental Processing Index (MPI), which uses the Laura Model.
Title: Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children | Second Edition Normative Update (KABC™-II NU)
Author:  Alan S Kaufman and Nadeen L Kaufman
Publisher: Pearson
Copyright: Pearson Canada Assessment, Inc.
Criterion-Referenced: the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) psychometric model of broad and narrow abilities 

Development
Drawing from advances in statistical approaches and neuropsychological theory of the time, the KABC was developed by Alan and Nadeen Kauffman in 1983 as a clinical tool for investigating cognitive development in school children (children between ages 3 and 18). The test has been revised and edited in 2004, leading to the KABC-II—a more robust version.