Thai culture and TESOL pedagogy

English in Thailand

Teaching English as a foreign language is a difficult task in any culture. The nation of Thailand has a long history of attempting to guarantee that its citizens can speak English. There are many factors that influence the likelihood that individuals will learn English. In Thailand culture and language have greatly affected the ability of the education system to help students become proficient in the English language. Overall the research suggests that both culture and language can be impediments to learning English in Thailand. Although the presence of the English language has existed for quite some time in Thailand, the research suggests that cultural differences in Western and Eastern countries can be difficult to overcome. The research also seems to emphasize the very real differences that are present when comparing the very structure of the English language to the language spoke in Thailand. This is particularly evident as it pertains to conditional structures. These structures are so different that they must be explained thoroughly and require a great deal of practice to understand fully.

Introduction

Teaching English as a foreign language is a difficult task in any culture. Countries throughout the world have mandated the learning of English as a second language or foreign language. Such mandates have occurred because of the increasingly global nature of the world in which we live. This new global environment has forced the people of the world to embrace English for the purposes of business communication and cross cultural communication. In many cases education systems around the world have made the learning of English a compulsory part of the curriculum starting in elementary school. The goal of making English a compulsory part of the education process is to immerse children in the language at an early age which increases the likelihood that they will become proficient in the language. Those who govern education systems around the world understand the importance of being able to communicate in English for the purposes of conducting business.

The nation of Thailand has a long history of attempting to guarantee that its citizens can speak English. There are many factors that influence the likelihood that individuals will learn English. In Thailand culture and language have greatly affected the ability of the education system to help students become proficient in the English language. These impediments must be overcome if the whole of Thailand is to completely engage in the global market in a way that is competitive. The purpose of this discussion is to examine the relationship between Thai culture and the teaching of English as a foreign language in Thailand. More specifically the research will demonstrate that Thai culture and Thai language creates barriers to effective English teaching in Thailand.

Overview of the Increasing use of English Around the world

From a global standpoint, there is a rapidly increasing number of people who are speaking English as a first language, second language or foreign language (FL). These individuals come from linguistic and cultural backgrounds that are heterogonous. As such these individuals use the English language and use the language for many different reasons (Jahan & Roger 2006).

With these things understood, the current Global English occurrence presents certain challenges as it pertains to practices and principles of English language pedagogy. More specifically the authors explain that

"the issue of the cultural manifestations associated with the English language and the way in which these are approached pedagogically in non-English speaking contexts gives rise to a number of important questions for both language teachers and learners. In seeking to learn a foreign language, learners generally expect that they will need to become familiar with the culture of those who speak this language as a mother tongue. In the case of languages that are associated with a single nation-state, the target culture associated with the language in question tends also to be defined along national lines (Jahan & Roger 2006, 2)."

The authors establish the framework by which culture becomes an integral aspect of learning a new language. The article also explains the contextual differences that exist between English speaking and non-English speaking populations in terms of cultural differences and the acquiring of the English language.

The authors further explain that as it pertains to the acquiring of the English language, learners of the language who reside in countries where English is spoken as the primary language will automatically link the notion of the 'target culture' with the apparent aspects of the culture of the English language speakers that surround them (Jahan & Roger 2006). On the contrary, in countries where English is not the primary language, the idea of a 'target culture' associated with the English language, from the viewpoint of foreign language learners, may be unclear (Jahan & Roger 2006).

Important to understanding the sociolinguistic profile of English language on a global scale, a concentric model of English users becomes a useful tool (Jahan & Roger 2006). The concentric model has as a foundation the types and nature of spread, arrangement of acquisition, along with the practical position of the English language in various cultural contexts (Jahan & Roger 2006). The concentric model is formed be three concentric circles that include the Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle (Jahan & Roger 2006). According to the authors,

"The Inner Circle refers to countries such as the UK, USA, Canada and Australia, which have the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English. The Outer Circle (taking in Bangladesh, India, Kenya and Hong Kong, for instance) represents the regions which have passed through extended periods of British colonisation and have subsequently institutionalised varieties of English into governmental, legal, education and literary domains. The Expanding Circle includes countries where English has various roles and is widely studied but for more specific purposes (e.g. To conduct business, to access technology, or to access printed information in a range of academic disciplines) than in the Outer Circle. The 'performance' varieties of English used in the Expanding Circle often lack an official status and are typically restricted in their use ((Jahan & Roger 2006,4)."

Thailand as a nation is part of the expanding circle. That is the nation does not have a cultural and traditional basis for using English like the countries in the Inner Circle such as the United Kingdom and the United States. In addition Thailand does not have a history of being ruled by Great Britain in which the speaking of English becomes compulsory. However, Thailand had adopted the learning of English as a means of conducting business and communicating cross culturally. Because Thailand is a member of this particular circle the learning of the English language becomes a different type of experience when compared to nations that are a part of the other two circles. Understanding these learning differences is key to developing curricula that are effective and efficient.

Overall, the research thus far has explained why there has been a global increase in the amount of English being taught in various nations. As an essential aspect of globalization countries are no longer as isolated as they once were and the ability to communicate across cultural boundaries is essential for conducting business and having the capcity able to compete globally. With all these things understood nations around the world have made the learning of English a compulsory aspect of their curricula. Like other countries around the world, the people of Thailand have also made English a compulsory aspect of the education curriculum. The following section will elaborate on the role of English in Thailand's education system.

History and Overview of the teaching of English in Thailand

According to Foley (2005) Traditionally English language teaching (ELT) in Thailand began with the reign of King Rama III from 1824 until 1851. Over time the increase in the number of Westerners living in and visiting Thailand made learning English necessary for administrators and high court officials. In 1921 Thailand made English compulsory for students in grade 4 and beyond. There were two primary objectives associated with English language teaching (ELT) in Thailand. These objectives were to develop modem thinkers and to provide children with a sufficient knowledge of English to be able to function in English-speaking classrooms (Foley, 2005). The author also reports that this type of compulsory teaching of English in Thailand was common until 1960. In 1960 the country's education system underwent another change in which there was a more pronounced emphasis on the English language as a tool for international communication. The utilization of the English language as a communication tool became important as a result of the United States involvement in IndoChina which began to influence different aspects of Thai life. The author also points out that "As regards teaching methods, some attempt was made to replace rote memorization and grammar translation with an audio-lingual method. However, this approach did not succeed very well as it seemed to go against the rote learning tradition that was ingrained in both the educational and religious traditions of Thai culture (Wongsothorn et al. 2002, 108)." By 1996 the teaching of English in Thailand was compulsory for all primary children from the first grade.

Teaching English as a Second Language in Thailand

Although the teaching of English as a second language has been present in Thailand for quite some time, there are still many issues that arise as it pertains to teaching English in Thailand. In some ways it may appear that English language pedagogy is still in its infancy. For instance many people in Thailand have low degrees of proficiency in English (Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009). This is particularly true as it pertains to the speaking and writing of English. The problems present in Thailand as it pertains to Teaching English as a foreign language has many different causes (Laopongharn & Sercombe (2009). For the purposes of this discussion, Thai culture will be explored as an impediment to the teaching of English as a second language.

Thai Culture as an impediment to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

There are obvious cultural differences that exist between Thailand and nations that are part of the Inner and Outer Circles of the concentric model. Nations in the inner and outer circles have been immersed with English culture since their inception or through years (centuries even) of colonial rule. According to Jahan & Roger (2006) this exposure to English culture has an impact on the ability of a nation to embrace English as a language. For instance, in researching other nations within the expanding circle the authors found that

"On the basis of the focus group data, one gains the impression that in countries such as

Korea, Indonesia, and Japan there is a degree of ambivalence with respect to the acceptance of cultural connotations that are seen by many as inevitable accompaniments to the English language. In Korea and Japan in particular, students tend to learn English from materials that present American norms, and apart from classroom instruction they primarily receive exposure to English through television or videos. However, from the data one can gain the impression that the Koreans and the Indonesians to a certain extent are struggling to incorporate what they see as the cultural phenomena associated with the English language into their own contexts (Jahan & Roger 2006, 9)"

There are several scholars that have asserted that "in many contexts of language teaching and learning, students seem frustrated and subsequently fail in language learning where the curriculum and teachers fail to take intercultural communication (ICC) into consideration (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009, 59)." On the other hand, there seems to be some chanes occurring as it pertsint to the way that the English language is taught throughout the world and these changes have made their way into Tahiland.

One of the primary changes occurring involves the idea that the learning of English is not just about understanding grammar but also a new form of communicating with others. Learning the English Language is also associated with enhancing the understanding of cultures that used to be unfamiliar to the learner. The authors further explain that "Since communication is related to context, and culture is context dependent, communication cannot be culture-free (Cortazzi and Jin 1999). Consequently, it seems undesirable and impractical to separate language learning from learning about target cultures (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009, 59). Lustig and Koester (2006) describes ICC as "a symbolic, interpretative, transactional, contextual process in which people from different cultures create shared meanings?, or at least attempt to. ICC may break down, for example, "when large and important cultural differences create dissimilar interpretations and expectations about how to communicate competently (46).

From a historical perspective, ICC focuses on the supposedly problematic characteristics of the communicative process amongst people from different cultural upbringings as demonstrated by Piller (2007), as well as other researchers (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009). On the other hand, confusion may also occur for reasons not related to cultural reasons. In addition this confusion can occur between people from comparable language and cultural settings (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009). As a result of the connection between language and culture, this interrelationship, present in ICC, can be measured in the Thai context.

Culture is important in any context. People are deeply affected by their cultural surroundings and as such cultural norms become a part of everything that they due, the learning of new language is no exception to this rule. In addition, language in and of itself is an important part of culture. According to Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009) "Culture is in language, and language is loaded with culture (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009)." With this understood the primary objective of "ICC pedagogy in relation to ELT is to enable language learners to develop a wider view of cultures and societies in which the language they are learning is used. Byram and colleagues (1994, 1997, 1998), among others (e.g. Kramsch 1993, 1998), have contributed substantially to the study of language and culture, and indicated that it seems difficult for language teaching to occur without teaching about the cultures of the languages being taught, largely because language invariably connects to a speaker-s knowledge about and perceptions of the world which are shaped by culture, among other influences (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009).

As it relates more directly to Thailand and the learning of English, in an effort to comprehend a text or utterance Thai learners of English should not only learn about relevant cultural norms but should also have the capacity to disseminate cultural knowledge. This knowledge should be derived from the language utilized in the discourse (Byram 1989; Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009). For example, such awareness can help learners in understanding how a literary text embeds and reflects the cultural positions of its characters (Zarate 1991; Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009).

Conversely, while studying or reviewing a text, learners will have to deal with their own frames of reference, which may be quite different from the frames of references of non-native speakers, such as Thai learners when compared to native speakers of English. The authors explain that these cultural differences may cause Thai students to approach other cultures from a Buddhist perspective because Budhism is a dominant theme in Thai culture. In Thai culture Buddhism is believed to be the primary source of knowledge, values, beliefs and behavior, serving as a foundation for Thai society and education (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009). This belief system is in marked contrast with America which tends to have a Christian perspective as it pertains to religion and spirituality. If a Thai learner is not made aware of this difference in cultural beliefs he/she may not have the capacity to fully grasp the language. Failure to grasp the language will lead to the inability to become proficient in the language.

In addition to cultural perspectives related to spirituality and religion, there are also other cultural differences that can complicate the acquiring of the English language in Thailand. For instance

"Saengboon (2004, p.24) states that Thai education seems to value "cooperation to preserve a natural, hierarchical, and social order?, which is founded on Theravada Buddhism to which approximately 95% of the population subscribes (O'Sullivan and Tajaroensuk 1997). In this respect, it seems appropriate that English language teachers, both native and non-native, are aware of these influences on language learning in order to enable them to acquire a sufficient understanding of Thai learners? attitudes towards learning, as suggested by Adamson (2003, 2005) and Brown (2004). The process of using and expanding learners? first culture for interpreting a foreign culture is simply part of their expanding knowledge of the world (Laopongharn & Sercombe 2009).

In other words, Thai learners may not understand all of the subtle nuances present in English because cultures where English is spoken such as the United Kingdom and the United States have cultural underpinning that are wholly different from that of the Thai learner. Because culture shapes language it becomes critical that Thai learners are given information about the cultures in which English is the dominant language. Indeed instructors must recognize these differences and be able to explain these differences in a manner that is effective.

Cultural differences can often be seen when teaching English in Thailand. Forman (2008) explains scenario in which "A text taken from a post-beginner class, at a point where the teacher was eliciting from students vocabulary related to rooms in dwellings. The lesson was conducted bilingually: students could provide an English term if it was known to them; if not, they offered Thai, which the teacher would then translate. At this point in the lesson, one student had suggested hong pra, a room which exists in Thai culture but not normally in Western culture. The phrase hong pra translates literally as "room + Buddha image," and the teacher responded as seen in Table 6. When a second student offered Monk room as a possible translation into English, the teacher explained why this would not be appropriate, and continued in Thai and English (Forman 2008)."

In this example of cultural differences between the Western world and Thailand, the cultural barriers that exist are evident. Although these differences may not seem significant, they shape the manner in which people view the world. Because there are blaring cultural differences a person from Thailand may likely experience a feeling of confusion when trying to understand these cultural differences. Such confusion can become a distraction and impede upon the ability of the individual to become proficient in the English language. Teachers of English in Thailand must be prepared to encounter such cultural differences and have the capacity to explain such differences in a manner that is clear. The inability to prepare results in the failure to overcome cultural differences when doing so can lead to greater proficiency in the English language. Although cultural differences serve as a major conflict as it pertains to Thai learners acquiring English as a second language, differences in language also lead to problem when attempting to teach English in Thailand.

Thai Language as an impediment to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

According to Mahidol University, Thai is the official language of Thailand. Nearly 100% of the population speaks Thai. Linguists classify the language as belonging to the Chinese-Thai branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. According to the University, Thai "is a tonal language, uninflected, and predominantly monosyllabic. Most polysyllabic words in the vocabulary have been borrowed, mainly from Khmer, Pali or Sanskrit. Dialects are spoken in rural areas. Principal other languages are Chinese and Malay ("The National Language")." Although these other languages are prominent in Thailand, English is also spoken throughout Thailand especially in larger cities such as Bangkok.

In addition to cultural differences, there are also some very real differences related to the structure of the Chinese language when compared to the English language. These differences are substantial and include many differences as it pertains to sentence structure and other elements. One of the prominent differences has to do with conditional constructions. According to Chou (2000) "Conditional constructions reflect the human capacity to contemplate various situations and to infer consequences on the basis of known or imaginary conditions (58)." Those who study linguistics have posited that all human language has a process associated with the development of conditional sentences. . Linguists have also found that conditionals are present in many different languages including German, Latin, English, Classic Greek, and Chinese. Nevertheless, Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) found that people learning English as a second language usually have problems in understanding English conditionals because of the syntactic and semantic intricacies entrenched in conditional constructions. Additionally there are researchers who believe that the understanding of "the human mechanism of constructing and comprehending conditionals provides basic insights into the cognitive processes, linguistic competence, and inferential strategies of human beings (Chou, 2000). " the author further explains that

"The typical English conditional construction is if p, then q (Traugott et al., 1986). The if-clause (if-C) is the antecedent, in which the speaker states the condition of reasoning, and the then-clause is the consequent in which a speaker states the outcome of inferences (Traugott et al., 1986, p. 5). The word then can be omitted without distorting the meaning of a conditional sentence, so I will use the term main clause (MC) to refer to the consequent of a conditional (Chou 2000, 58)."

The author further explains that within the context of English conditionals, the time of events (past, present, or future) and the truth-value (factual, possible, counterfactual) are signified by three grammatical features of the verb phrases (VP) including the following:

1. The past tense

2. The perfect aspect

3. The presence of modals, including will or may (Chou, 2000)

However, conditionals in other language are quite different from English in terms of linguistic representation and use. As a result of these differences "the question arises of whether the structure of a language influences the way its speakers think, as suggested in the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (Bloom, 1981). To be more specific, do the differences in the representation of conditionals between other languages and English cause the native speakers (NS) of these two languages to have different abilities to reason counterfactually? (Chou, 2000)" That is, does the structure of language influence the manner in which people think.