The current recession and economic impacts

Recession and African-Americans in the Metropolitan Area

THE RECESSION AND African-AmericanS

IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA

"Researchers use the scholarly literature in a study to present results of similar studies, to relate the present study to an ongoing dialogue in the literature and to provide a framework for comparing results of a study with other studies"

John W. Creswell (2008, p. 45).

Even though the "literature" the researcher utilizes in literature review constitutes any collection of materials relating to a topic; not automatically the world's great literary texts, as Literature Reviews (2007) asserts, for this study's literature review, the researcher, as John W. Creswell (2008) notes in his book, In Research Design, primarily utilizes the scholarly literature for this segment's framework.

Along with serving as the study's framework, a comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field proves vital as it provides a solid background for the examination of the study's focus. Literature Reviews (2007) purports that literature reviewed in a study may range from numerous government pamphlets to scholarly articles to any collection of materials on a topic. A review, this source stipulates, does not necessarily denote the researcher's personal opinion indicating whether he/she liked these sources. "A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period" (Literature Reviews, 2007, What is a literature... section, ¶ 1). In addition to serving to support a study, literature reviews also help inform the professional, and the scholar of current information in his/her field.

Some literature reviews simply summarize sources, albeit the traditional literature review generally follows an organizational pattern as it combines both summary and synthesis of reviewed literature. As the researcher recaps relevant information the reviewed source relates, he/she creates a synthesis by re-organizing, or reshuffling the retrieved information. The researcher may freshly interpret old material, or he/she may combine fresh material with old interpretations. The researcher may sketch the intellectual progression of the field or phenomenon, along with examining major debates/issues. In some instances, during the literature review, the researcher may evaluate the researched sources and recommend the most pertinent or relevant to the reader (Literature Reviews, 2007).

An academic research paper and a literature review include a number of identical and/or similar elements. One of the first decisions the researcher must make in crafting the literature review is to determine how to organize basic categories, as the chapter may be organized in the following ways:

1. In chronological order

4. By themes (Literature Reviews, 2007).

5. By methodological processes.

An effective literature search establishes that no other individual has previously undertaken the particular research endeavor the researcher determined to complete. "Journal articles and conference papers are significant in all subject areas. Books are still very significant in the publication of original research in the humanities and social sciences," (Literature searching, 2007) as in this dissertation. For this study's literature review, the researcher primarily utilizes journal articles; with additional support from a number of other credible sources. The researcher follows a thematic order to organize the information; drawing from the study's research questions, initially introduced in this study's Introduction. The research questions include the following primary question and three sub-questions:

How does the economic recession affect the Metropolitan Area African-Americans?

1. What economic obstacles affect African-Americans because of the recession?

2. How do the economic obstacles of African-Americans compare to those other African-Americans in Northern Virginia and the District of Columbia experience?

3. What practices can the Metropolitan government implement to address the economic obstacles challenging African-Americans during the recession?

The themes for this study's literature review, which include one additional theme, added to the three themes portrayed in the research questions include:

1. African-Americans

2. Economic Obstacles Affecting African-Americans

3. Specific Study Considerations

4. Metropolitan Government Practices

2.2: African-Americans

"Colored' was replaced by negro before 'black' and then 'African-American' became the label of choice"

- David George (2006).

The following excerpts for the Timeline (2008) section, presented by The History Makers, a national, non-profit educational institution, conveys a record of challenges the African-American has countered during the past 2000 plus years.

Jacques Constantin Deburque Born: Violinist and music teacher Jacques Constantin Deburque is born this year. He will go on to direct the orchestra at the Theatre de la Renaissance for the "free colored" in New Orleans, Louisiana.

January 2, 1800

Free African-Americans in Philadelphia Petition Congress: In Philadelphia, free African-Americans petition Congress to abolish slavery. The petition is defeated, and South Carolinian John Rutledge, Jr., comments that the request is one result of "this new fangled French philosophy of liberty and equality." The defeat does not stop the African-American community from taking action to garner freedom, even 150 years later.

May 10, 1800

U.S. Government Penalizes Those Working on Slave Ships: In an attempt to curb the foreign slave trade, the United States government passes a series of laws which harshly punish its citizens who voluntarily serve on slave traders.

August 3, 1800

Slave Uprising Begins: Gabriel Prosser begins a slave uprising in Richmond, Virginia on this date. Prosser led one-thousand slaves in a revolt to take over and seize the state capital. On August 30, 1800, the slave revolt was totally suppressed and all of Prosser's followers were executed by hanging

August 30, 1800

Slave Uprising Suppressed: Approximately one thousand slaves, led by Gabriele Prosser, attempt an uprising in Richmond, Virginia. The rebellion is seamlessly planned, but two slaves expose the plot to the plantation owner. The Federal Militia is brought in and the uprising is put down almost as soon as it begins. The insurgents, including Prosser, are hanged.

October 07, 1800

Gabriel Prosser Executed: Gabriel Prosser was hung on this date for leading a slave revolt near Richmond, Virginia.

March 10, 1810

Adelle v. Beauregard: A Louisiana court, in handing down its decision in Adelle v. Beauregard, declares that a "person of color" is free unless otherwise proven so. It distinguishes between persons of color and Africans, those who are slaves or have an African mother.

Boston Opens Public School for African-Americans: Boston, Massachusetts opens its first public school for African-American children.

U.S. Army Forbidden to Accept Blacks: Only a few short years after proving themselves in battle during the War of 1812, the U.S. Army is forbidden to accept either blacks or mulattoes into their ranks.

May 15, 1820

Slave Trade Declared Piracy: Working with the British, the U.S. Congress declares the foreign slave trade to be piracy, punishable by death. Four naval vessels are sent to patrol the western coast of Africa to hunt for slavers. After four years, the program is called off and the ships return to port.

September 20, 1830

First National Negro Convention Meets: The first National Negro Convention meets in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania convening delegates from Delaware, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia to discuss the founding of a black college and an initiative to encourage blacks to immigrate to Canada. The conventions become extremely prevalent during the next three decades and serve as the organizational backbone of antebellum black political life.

September 18, 1850

Fugitive Slave Law Revised: The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed with only four Congressmen voting against it. The law allowed for federal martials to be fined for not arresting runaway slave, resulting in numerous false arrests. A slave-owner had to do nothing but give testimony in order to claim an individual. This led to an increased call for violent resistance to slavery among blacks.

May 28, 1880

Benjamin O. Davis Sr. Born: Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. was born on this date in Washington, D.C. Davis was the first Black general in the U.S. Army.

March 30, 1870

Fifteenth Amendment Ratified: The United States Congress ratifies the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The amendment grants male suffrage regardless of "race, color or previous condition of servitude." This leads to a debate over women's suffrage.

May 31, 1870

Civil Rights Enforcement Act Passed: Congress passed the Civil Rights Enforcement Act on this date. This act recognized the equality of all men

February 01, 1960

Wave of Sit-ins Begin in Greensboro:

Four African-American North Carolina Tech State University freshmen occupy seats at a Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, after they were refused service. This event sparks a wave of nonviolent sit-ins that spreads throughout the country and results in the integration of seventeen school districts and countless public arenas.

May 06, 1960

Civil Rights Act Passed: President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which acknowledges the federal government's responsibility to become involved in matters of civil rights. Specifically, the act levied penalties upon those who attempted to obstruct another from voting, and although the problems persisted, many realized the importance of the federal government reversing its long-standing "hands off" policy towards civil rights.

November 29, 1960

U.S. Census Reports that Black Population is Over Ten Percent: The U.S. Census reported that Blacks made up 10.6% of the U.S. population on this date.

January 02, 1970

FBI Reviews Black Militant Activity: The Federal Bureau of Investigation, under J. Edgar Hoover, makes public its continuing investigation into the activities of black nationalist organizations, singling out the Black Panther Party in particular, Hoover viewing the group as a national security threat.

January 05, 1970

Blacks Move Out of Inner Cities: The Bureau of Census statistics show as the quality of life in poverty-stricken urban communities worsens, a continuous stream of middle-class blacks escape to higher-income neighborhoods and suburbs.

February 13, 1970

First Black Member of the New York Stock Exchange: Joseph L. Searles III becomes the first African-American to become a member of the New York Stock Exchange, starting his training as a floor partner with the firm of Newberger, Leob & Company.

June 16, 1970

Gibson Elected Mayor of Newark, New Jersey: Kenneth A. Gibson was elected mayor of Newark, New Jersey on this date. He also became the first Black president of the Conference of U.S. Mayors during his career.

January 25, 1980

BET Launched: Robert L. Johnson launches Black Entertainment Television on cable. The network begins airing in the Washington, D.C. area.

May 18, 1980

Rioting In Miami: The worst rioting since the late 1960s erupts in Miami following the controversial acquittal of 4 white deputy sheriffs accused of beating to death a black insurance executive. At least 15 people die in the riots and more than 216 are wounded.

November 17, 1980

First Black-operated Public Radio Station: The first Black-operated public radio station, WHHM, went on the air at Howard University on this date in Washington, D.C.

March 03, 1990

First Black "Miss USA" Crowned: Detroit native Carole Gist becomes the first Black to win the title "Miss USA."

October 22, 1990

Bush Vetoes Civil Rights Bill: In spite of its significant support in Congress, President George Bush vetoes the Civil Rights Bill of 1990, which would have established racial quotas in employment.

October 26, 2000

Derek Jeter Named World Series MVP: New York Yankees shortstop Derek Jeter was named World Series Most Valuable Player of the "Subway Series" between the Yankees and the New York Mets on this date in New York City

November 07, 2000

Dorothy Brown Elected Clerk of the Circuit Court: Dorothy Brown is elected Clerk of the Circuit Court of Cook County (Illinois) by a 4 to 1 margin, becoming the first African-American to hold this position.

November 09, 2000

First Black President of an Ivy League University: Ruth Simmons became the first Black president of an Ivy League school on this date at Brown University in Rhode Island.

November 16, 2000

Coca-Cola Company Settles Race Discrimination Case: The Coca-Cola Company settled its race discrimination suit on this date. Former and current Coca-Cola employees filed the lawsuit because they believed the company had a corporate hierarchy where the Black employees were not given raises or promotions because of their race.

2.3: Economic Obstacles Affecting African-Americans

To address a recession, one must first understand what a recession consists of. A recession, according to the Investor Guide (2009) constitutes: "A period of general economic decline; specifically, a decline in GDP for two or more consecutive quarters." In his article, "How much do we understand about the modern recession?," Robert E. Hall (2007), Stanford University, explains that, "modern" recessions hit the U.S. economy in 1990-91 and then again during 2001. "A modern recession is one occurring in an economy with well-executed monetary policy and a small fraction of the labor force on the factory floor" (Hall, 2007, ¶ 1). Hall contends that in past and modern recessions, employment falls without specific identifiable driving forces. J.T. Young (2009) asserts in "Young: Recession effects 2009" that during the past 60 years, in addition to the current one, America has experienced nine recessions.

In the New York Times article, "Homeownership losses are greatest among minorities," John Leland (2009) notes the Pew Hispanic Center to report that during the current economic recession, the gains and growth African-Americans and native-born Latino made in homeownership during the past decade have been eroding faster than those of whites. The study also notes: "The gaps between white and minority households remain significant, however, with homeownership rates for Asians (59.1%), blacks (47.5%) and Latinos (48.9%) well below the 74.9% among whites" (Leland, 2009, ¶ 10). African-Americans and Latinos, the study reports are less likely than Whites to obtain mortgages. The rejection rate for Whites in regard to mortgages is12.1%; however, it skyrockets to 30.4% of African-American applications (Leland, 2009, ¶ 14).

Economic Impact of Education

A recent study by McKinsey & Company, a management consulting firm, according to Javier C. Hernandes (2009) in "Study cites dire economic impact of poor schools," indicates of American schoolchildren's lagging performance, particularly among poor and minority students, contributes to the negative economic situation. "Bleak disparities in test scores on four fronts: between black and Hispanic children and white children; between poor and wealthy students; between Americans and students abroad; and between students of similar backgrounds educated in different parts of the country" (Hernandes, 2009, Skip to next paragraph¶ 2). In turn, these disparities contribute to economic gaps that if closed, could increase the U.S. gross domestic product $3 billion to $5 billion more per day; trillions of dollars each year (Hernandes). Skip to next paragraph

Gregory Taylor (2009), senior vice president and associate general counsel for the American Bankers Association, also the editor of Banking Docket, quotes Pliny the Elder, an ancient Roman scholar and natural philosopher in "Recession and pre-emption: Will the current economic crisis prompt the supreme court to revisit Watters?" According to Pliny the Elder, in his Naturalis Historia (circa 77 AD): "The only certainty is that nothing is certain" (Pliny, as cited in Taylor, 2009, ¶ 1). What appears to be certain regarding the obstacles currently affecting African-Americans, the researcher notes, is in fact the uncertainty.

Recession Certainties

Currently, the United States (U.S.) economy is experiencing its worst recession in decades. That "certainty," according to Christian E. Weller (2009), Senior Fellow for The Center for American Progress, in the article, "Dr. Christian Weller: Economic snapshot for March 2009." As job and wealth losses accelerate and contribute to dramatic increases in families' economic distress: "Job losses accelerate. The U.S. economy shed 651,000 jobs in February 2009. Since the recession began in December 2007, the economy has lost 4.4 million jobs and 2.6 million jobs in just the last four months (Dr. Christian E…, 2009, ¶ 3).

During February 2009, the unemployment rate reached 8.1%, the highest level in the U.S. since December 1983. The unemployment rate for African-Americans, however, totaled 13.4%, while the rate for Hispanics was 10.9%. The rate for Whites during this time was at 7.3%. Figure 1 portrays these early 2009 unemployment rates in the U.S.; noting the differences in unemployment rates of African-Americans, Hispanics and Whites. Figure 1 reflects the unemployment rates of these races during early 2009 in the United States.

Figure 1: Early 2009 U.S. Unemployment Rates (adapted from Dr. Christian E…, 2009, ¶ 4).

Figure 2 portrays U.S. percentages of various races' unemployment rates.

Figure 2: Various Races' Unemployment Rates (Adapted from The District of…, 2007, p. 46).

Educational Disparities

Along with the obvious disparity in rates for Whites, compared to African-Americans in the unemployment realm, those individuals who did possess a high school diploma grew to 12.6%, compared to 8.3% for those with a high school degree and 4.1% for those with a college degree, (Dr. Christian E…, 2009, ¶ 4). Figure 3 notes the differences in earnings for African-Americans, 25-64 years old, in the labor force, regard to education in March 1970 and March 2008.

Figure depicts the educational attainment of African-Americans in the labor force during 1970, compared to 2008.

Figure 3: African-American Educational Attainment (adapted from Spotlight on statistics, 2009).

Figure 4 depicts medium earnings, related to degree of African-American worker.

Figure 4: African-American Median Weekly Earnings (adapted from Spotlight on…, 2009).

The Job Queue

African-Americans face a permanent recession, Algernon Austin (2008) asserts in examining what a recession would mean for black America in the brief, "What a recession means for black America." Austin contends that recessions "hurt the poor and socially marginalized populations the most" (¶ 1). According to Austin:

In the best of times, many African-American communities are forced to tolerate levels of unemployment unseen in most white communities. The 2001 recession pushed the white annual unemployment rate up from a low of 3.5% in 2000 to a high of 5.2% in 2003. During the same period, the black unemployment rate shot up from 7.6% to 10.8%. National recessions take African-Americans from a bad situation to a worse one.

In 2007, the black unemployment rate was 8.3%. This figure is still above the pre-recession low and more than twice the white unemployment rate. Goldman Sachs estimates that a new recession would increase the national unemployment rate to 6.4% by 2009. For African-Americans, the unemployment rate would be expected to rise to 11.0%.2. (Austin, 2008, ¶ ¶ 2-3)

During the 2001 recession, Austin (2008) recounts, on average, the poorest of African-American families only earned 43% of what the poorest 20% of white families earned. During 2000, the African-American/White average income ratio for the poorest fifth increased to 49.9% By 2005, the African-American's income fell back to 43.4%. Among the African-Americans, the poorest families lost the greatest share of their income gains from the late 1990s. As the current recession reduced the median family income for all Americans approximately 4%, nevertheless, the decline would total approximately 6%, leaving the average African-American family about $2,400 poorer; confirming the loss of income stemming the recession huts the poorest 20% of African-Americans more than other groups (Austin).

The recession "costs" the African-American more than monetary gains, however. Additional consequences from the recession include increases in the African-American violent crime rate; increase in the African-American teen pregnancy rate. A five country study by the Alan Guttmacher Institute, which included the U.S., purports that young people who grow up in disadvantaged economic, familial and social circumstances more likely engage in risky behavior and give birth to a child during adolescence, than their better off peers. Another recession, according to Austin (2008), would negatively affect the poorest African-Americans the most. U.S. Labor Market Disparities

Along with differences in education, experience, and skills contributing to employment rates and salaries, race, despite demonstrable changes during the last century, according "Race, ethnicity, and the American labor market: What's at work?" (2005), continues to constitute a significant social factor in understanding disparities in American. In addition to the labor market, areas that race routinely impacts include "health, income and wealth, housing and neighborhoods, and criminal justice" (Race, Ethnicity…, p. 1).

In fact, employer biases (individual, organizational, and social), informal decision-making processes, and systemic inequalities make race and ethnicity significant factors in determining workplace opportunities. The fundamental restructuring of the U.S. economy in the late twentieth century left the labor market even more vulnerable to discrimination that affects outcomes for workers all along the job queue. (Race, Ethnicity…, p. 1)

African-American Constraints

In a March 08, 2007 Congressional testimony, Robert Carmona (2007), President and CEO, STRIVE National Committee on Senate Joint Economic, related several specific barriers that Black/Latino men face relating to employment, which in turn contribute to obstacles African-Americans face in the recession. The survival skills the African-American male develops on the streets, according to Carmona, creates a mindset that simultaneously protects him, yet can impede effective functioning in the larger community. The African-American male's constraints on long-term planning, along with the fact the African-American male tends to function from a defensive posture, according to Carmona, seriously diminishes his decision-making ability in regard to employment.

When a person possesses a higher education, he/she usually earns more money. In fact, African-American college graduates earn more than double the salary of those who do not have a high school diploma (Spotlight on…, 2009). A Government document, "Spotlight on Statistics," (2009) reports that according to the United States Department of Labor, 17.7 million African-Americans worked in the labor force during 2008. This number accounted for 11%t of all Americans 16 years-old and older; employed or seeking work. The African-American labor force is reportedly younger than the total labor force; "64% of African-American labor force participants are under the age of 45, compared with 59% of all labor force participants" (Spotlight on…, 2009, p. 1). In 2008, of the African-Americans in the U.S. labor force, approximately 16 million were employed.

More African-Americans were employed in the education and health services sector than in the other industries. In 2008, approximately 4.5 million African-Americans, which equaled more than 1 in 4 of employed African-Americans, worked in education and health services. Just over 1 in 5 employed individuals in the United States, worked in education and health services (Spotlight on…, 2009, p. 2).

2.4: Specific Study Considerations

Abraham Maslow, who developed the theory noting that "hierarchies" of human needs range from basics such as food to added benefits such as art, contended that only when people comfortably achieved the basics in life, could they start to realize higher needs. When a person attained housing, safe communities, and other basic needs, Maslow purported, then he/she could begin to attain "love, self-esteem, and eventually self- actualization." Maslow's perceptions confirm that recessions would not generally contribute to people becoming better, Tom Keane (2009) argues in "The Myth of the 'Good' Recession…." During a recession, Keane contends, people are too preoccupied with just getting by to become better humans.

In regard to African-American males being able to meet basic needs through employment, William M. Rodgers III (2006), of Rutgers University, analyses several studies in Male White-Black wage gaps, 1979-1994: A distributional analysis." Rodgers reports that "Numerous studies show that during the 1980s the mean white-black wage gap among new entrant (0-10 years of potential experience) males expanded" (Rodgers, ¶ 1). A myriad of economy-wide race-neutral changes, not race-related, according to Rodgers, led to labor demand shifts that required better-educated and higher-skilled workers. "Because African-Americans tend to be at lower levels of the overall skill distribution, [however,] the shifts adversely impacted African-American men more than white men, leading to an expansion in the mean wage gap" (Ibid.). In Rodgers' study, he analyzes data obtained from the 16 consecutive CPS ORG files from 1979 to 1994.

The samples from Rodgers' study included full-time black and white males, at least 18 years of age, with 0-20 years of potential experience, either working or on layoff. Employed study participants were either employed in the public or private sector (no self-employed), and usually worked 35 or less hours per week (Rodgers, 2006, Data section, ¶ 1). Rodgers utilized wage decompositions to describe racial wage gaps, and access changes over time. Results suggest that the erosion in the relative wages of new entrant blacks during the first half of the 1980s did not evolve from increased racial discrimination and/or a growing differences in unmeasured skills the blacks possessed, but related more to general changes in the wage structure. These changes placed lower-skilled men, no matter their race, at a the reported higher disadvantages (Rodgers, 2006, Conclusion section).

No one factor can be "blamed" for adverse conditions relating to blacks in unemployment, Rodgers (2006) concludes. Literature contends that blacks, particularly "those with the least education and potential experience, bear the brunt of recessions" (Rodgers, Conclusion section, ¶ 4). Additionally, industry shifts, along with changes in skill-biased technology contributes to general factors challenging African-American men, and even positioning African-American college graduates, who began working during the early 1980s, at a greater initial disadvantage, compared to white men (Rodgers). Even accumulated labor market experience did not reportedly raise the relative value of the African-American's skills, as they continued to deteriorate after 1985. The early disadvantages these men experienced, according to Rodgers, continued to adversely impact on their abilities to obtain promotions. These challenges also negatively influenced their participation in and receipt of similar payoffs, related to job training.

Educational Pursuits

Jean-Marie Gaetane (2006) an assistant professor at Florida International University, Miami, Florida, examines the experiences of three African-American women leaders in historically black institutions in her study, "Welcoming the unwelcomed: a social justice imperative of African-American female leaders at historically black colleges and universities." Gaetane notes that the social movements occurring in the past 50 years prove to be trying for African-Americans as they confronted obstacles regarding what they could be and/or things they could do and accomplish. With the civil rights movement becoming a full-scale struggle during this time, "African-Americans experienced harsh treatments in educational institutions and had to develop unconventional ways to advocate for themselves and those in their community" (Gaetane, ¶ 1). The African-American female leaders in Gaetane's study confronted and disrupted institutions perceived as responsible for the oppression of African-Americans.

Brown v. Board of Education, a historic ruling that countered segregation in the educational system, redefined public education for African-Americans during the time "separate but equal" dominated U.S. social institutions. In her study, Gaetane (2006) presents women educated in segregated schools, which had limited teachers and classrooms, fewer resources, and a dearth of funding. Gaetane purports:

Education in general and higher education in particular became important for the individual, but especially for persons of color, who were consistently denied access to formal school early in the development of the United States and were more recently denied access to desegregated and good schools. (p. 12) (Gaetane, 2006, ¶ 2).

The primary data collection procedure Gaetane (2006) utilized included open-ended and semi-structured interview with the three study participants. Gaetane included field notes and a review of documents as supplementary sources as she collected data over a period of four months. From the study participants' narratives, Gaetane proffers a glimpse of how African-American "female leaders from a common social location enact a social justice leadership that is cognizant of the potential dropout rates experienced by many African-American students when they enter institutions of higher education" (Gaetane, 2006, Theoretical framework section, ¶ 17). From her study efforts, Gaetane initially confirmed a common challenge African-Americans counter, that shaped the participants' perspectives: "Inequality was a way life for Blacks during the turbulent years of the pre- and post-Civil Rights Movement" (Findings section, ¶ 3). The three participants, Gwendolyn Smith, dean in the school of nursing at her institution, Veronica Murphy, daughter of parents, who were instructors at a Historically Black College and University (HBCU), became president of their school, and Keenya Royster, a vice chancellor for student affairs.

Gwendolyn Smith… born and raised in North Carolina, pursued her studies in nursing at both historically Black and White institutions. The oldest of the three female leaders, her life story reflected what American society was like during segregation.

Veronica Murphy… [identified with] the forces in her life that have influenced her were borne out of that experience with her parents. She also described her college experience and upbringing as one in which she was surrounded by highly educated individuals such as her grandfather who was one of three Black physicians in her southern town.

Born in the same era as Smith and Murphy, Keenya Royster… earned her graduate and undergraduate degrees in business administration from HBCUs. Her primary experiences were from the business sector and she later transitioned to higher education, what she called, "my second career." Her use of concise yet passionate language communicated the sense that her ideas were carefully reasoned. Royster recounted her decision to be among the many who integrated public schools after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. (Gaetane, 2006, Findings section, ¶ 4-6)

Smith, Murphy, and Royster, according to findings Gaetane (2006) presents, accepted the responsibility to lead. In turn, they taught others "how to transform practices that hinder students from equitable access to education" (Gaetane, 2006, Findings section, ¶ 13). These women recognized that to be competent in a profession, one must be intellectually informed about social issues. he/she must be culturally knowledgeable and socially attentive not only to his/her own community of African-American, but also to the larger society that encompasses all races (Gaetane).

HBCUs challenged the traditional practice of exclusion based on discriminatory policies that explicitly/implicitly deterred African-Americans from accessing education. Gaetane (2006) asserts that no matter if the higher education institution is historically Black or White, albeit it best serves when it is inclusive of individuals of diverse racial, ethnic, class, and gender background. During a recession, current standardization states broaden the gap of those who may or may not pursue higher education. The national increase in admission standards, as well as the financial cost for attending college, and budgetary cuts in federal funding for universities and colleges "exacerbate students' opportunity to secure financial and educational resources" Gaetane, Implications for… section, ¶ 1). The need exists for alternative models and equitable distribution of financial resources to ensure capable individuals receive an equal start to pursue higher learning.

Goals for Housing

In "Affordable housing, land tenure, and urban policy: the matrix revealed," J. Peter Byrne, Professor, Georgetown University Law Center, and Michael Diamond (2007), Senior Academic and Policy Fellow and Associate Director of the Harrison Institute for Public Law, Georgetown University Law Center, purport that affordable housing supplies an essential foundation for a person's physical and social life. Housing "provides shelter, security, recreation, and wealth. It plays a central role in the health and well-being of its occupants and also supports their employment and educational endeavors. Among the poor, there is a severe shortage of adequate, affordable housing" (Byrne & Diamond, ¶ 1). In their article, Byrne and Diamond (2007) describe the policies housing programs advance in addressing the housing shortage among the poor and reveal existing tension between the policies and programs.

Byrne and Diamond (2007) explain that the primary goal of government housing policy towards the poor consisted of providing decent shelter at affordable prices. In addressing concerns, such as inadequate light, plumbing, and heat, unsafe wiring, and poor ventilation, New York enacted tenement laws, which regulated construction design and basic utilities. In time, other states emulated these practices. African-American neighborhoods, Byrne and Diamond note, appeared more economically diverse the African-Americans were excluded from numerous white neighborhoods.

In their study, Byrne and Diamond (2007) argue that modest increases of economic mixing, realistically attainable in the foreseeable future could benefit society. Byrne and Diamond present two primary arguments for adopting policies promoting residential economic integration. "Extreme economic segregation denies equal citizenship to poor residents, measured both by their lack of access to essential public services and their diminished political power" Byrne and Diamond (2007, Urban vitality section, ¶ 5) contend. They also point out that residential segregation of the poor prohibits them from accessing pertinent, premium public services.

Byrne and Diamond (2007) examine the case of Capitol Manor, a 102-unit complex of three contiguous buildings in the Columbia Heights neighborhood. The neighbor consists primarily of African-American and Latino lower income residents, who lived there a number of years. The area includes numerous once-elegant townhouses, along with several low-rise multi-family dwellings. In recent years, a subway stop opened nearby, and many wealthier individuals and families. As residents realized the older structures' quality and the convenience the area offers via the subway, they began buying the townhouses. Developers also began to convert the multi-family dwellings to condominiums. In turn, many of the lower income residents had to move out of their long-time "homes."

In compliance with a law stipulating the owner of places like Capitol Manor offer to sell their "homes' to them, when the owner of Capitol Manor decided to sell the buildings, he offered it to the tenants (Byrne & Diamond, 2007). Many of the tenants, primarily low- and very low-income families, received rental assistance under Section 8 or public assistance and had never owned property. The $3.5 million purchase price appeared daunting, however the group of residents committed to attempt to purchase Capitol Manor. They subsequently organized the tenants to "move forward" with the purchase idea. The residents then hired a lawyer, along with a development consultant to begin the process of purchasing and renovating the building. "The board went through a variety of training programs to assist… [the residents] in running meetings, understanding the development process, and operating the building" (Byrne & Diamond, Build durable institutions section, ¶ 8).

The process for the residents to purchase and convert Capitol Manor required years of work. The new owners, former tenants, continue to make Capital Manor their home. According to Byrne and Diamond (2007), the purchase and renovation of Capital Manor proffered an opportunity for private developers, as well as state and local governments to develop affordable housing projects.

Along with relating the incident of Capital Manor, Byrne and Diamond (2007) identified a range of goals that governments may directly or indirectly accomplish through housing policy. Byrne and Diamond contend they did not aim to suggest which goals should be privileged or even denote policies that ought to be implemented, as they do not perceive any one particular model to meet all legitimate housing needs. The message Byrne and Diamond articulated was the significance of organizing competing goals and policies for affordable housing. "These goals may range from such basics as the provision of decent, affordable shelter and wealth creation to the less apparent goals of creating social capital and social integration" Byrne and Diamond (2007, Conclusion section, ¶ 2) assert. When goals are established policies established to address housing needs, decision-makers may than appropriate projects to match local needs with available resources.

Choosing one goal does not automatically necessitate that another goal be negated, as is often the case, even when both prove socially and politically laudable. When decision makers understanding this reality, this helps empower them to consciously, creatively choose across the range of legitimate goals, and accessible tools. Currently, many affordable housing policies pursue competing social goals. These may include the conflict between maintaining affordability and maximizing wealth creation. Another conflict may be how to balance "the desire to preserve historic buildings and neighborhoods with the cost of doing so since it may reduce the affordability of the housing that is produced" (Byrne & Diamond, 2007, Conclusion section, ¶ 3). Despite differences in goals regarding the solution for affordable housing, Byrne and Diamond contend that no matter which goal one prefers, the decision makers need to first and foremost consider the decisions' effects on the entire community. When policy makers broaden the range of their considerations, options for increasing affordable housing for African-Americans, and others, in and out of a recession, also increase.

The PSID

In a brief paper, "The rising instability of American family incomes, 1969-2004: Evidence from the panel study of income" Jacob S. Hacker, professor of political science for Social and Policy Studies, Yale University, and Elisabeth Jacobs, (2008), a doctoral candidate at Harvard University, examine the instability of a family's income. The core dataset Jacobs and Hacker utilized in their brief, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), a credible panel income survey, followed thousands of respondents and their families from the late 1960s. This study effort constituted the longest incessant panel income survey worldwide. Rather than the traditional "cross sectional" source of income data, for example, repeated random surveys of different individuals, the study Jacobs and Hacker conducted implemented "longitudinal" or "panel" income data; analyzing repeated observations of the same individual's income over a period of time.

The PSID, which contains a number of survey groups, specifically, an original sample chosen to be a national representative and a supplementary sample of low-income respondents. The study by Jacobs and Hacker (2008) study follows the lead of previous PSID users and mixes these two samples, "weighting the analyses to ensure representative results using newly available longitudinal weights that consistently correct for attrition from the beginning of the survey" Jacobs & Hacker, Methods section, ¶ 2). This methodology produces data that closely match other respected income datasets.

Family income instability, according to Jacobs and Hacker (2008) may be calculated with differing definitions of income, along with different measures of instability. The initial analyses in The Great Risk Shift observed a comprehensive measure of family income that considered account primary non-cash benefits, along with taxes. Jacobs and Hacker report that they limit the focus in their brief to pre-tax cash family income, deemed as the sum of asset income, labor income, along with public and private cash transfers for all family members. This contributes to results being more comparable with recent studies, while addressing numerous data problems with more extensive income measures.

While the PSID serves a respected, credible data source which numerous U.S. top social scientists utilize, questions arise regarding the quality of the 1990s data, when the procedures for survey changed (Jacobs & Hacker, 2008).

For most of the PSID's history, the income reports in the PSID closely match those in other respected datasets, including the Census Bureau's March Current Population Survey (CPS). Nonetheless, the PSID departs from the Current Population Survey at the bottom of the income distribution for roughly five years in the mid-1990s.17 During this time, the lowest income categories in the PSID have lower average incomes than seen in other income datasets and the overall variance of the PSID income data jumps. (Jacobs & Hacker, 2008, Methods section, ¶ 14)

Jacobs and Hacker (2008) found that over the period, the volatility of total family income essentially doubled; increasing by 99%. They note a number of distinct periods of steady growth through the early 1980s, "a flat period in the mid-to-late 1980s, sharp growth in the early 1990s, a dip in the late 1990s, and a slow tick upwards at the turn of the 21st century" (Jacobs & Hacker, 2008, Results section, ¶ 2). Due to its coincidence with the major administrative changes in the PSID, Jacobs and Hacker assert that one must view the sharpness of the rise in transitory variance, occurring during the early to mid-1990s, somewhat suspiciously. Even when completely ignored, albeit, the overall trend proves to be positive and clear. Ultimately, Jacobs and Hacker report, income volatility revealed substantial growth from the early 1970s to the early 2000s.

Some may perceive the less-educated Americans to be the only individuals confronting rising family income instability. Jacobs and Hacker (2008), nevertheless found that volatility rose almost identically across all I

In addressing the question, "What is driving the substantial rise in family income volatility?," Jacobs and Hacker advise that researchers need to conduct additional studies for the answer. The findings from the study by Jacobs and Hacker, albeit, along with other recent analyses provide a number of vital clues. The rise in family income volatility, Jacobs and Hacker (2008) find, nevertheless, is not limited to one particular demographic group, for example, the poor or poorly educated.

The rise among more-educated workers primarily occurred during the 1990s and after, while in the 1980s, family income volatility sharply rose among less-educated workers. As the economic tide for workers and their families appears to increasingly rise in good years, yet plunges downward in bad, these up-and-down fluctuations contribute challenges and concerns. In turn, they demand attention due to what they indicate regarding the American economy, that workers and their families bear more risk, even as the macro-economy stabilizes a bit more (Jacobs & Hacker, 2008).

Jacobs and Hacker (2008) assert that the rise in family income volatility would appear to be less troubling if accompanied by the middle class' income. This did not occur, however, "according to the comprehensive post-tax income series of the CBO, average family income (adjusted for inflation and including public benefits) among the middle fifth of American families rose by 21% between 1979 and 2005" (Jacobs & Hacker). The opposite occurred. The after-tax family income of the richest 1% of individuals in the U.S. increased 230%. Meantime, workers in middle-class families devote more time to paying work, primarily due to the women's work hours increasing. In fact, rather than rising earnings, the majority of income gains the middle class realized occurred due to the increased work hours. While family incomes fluctuating more sharply, Jacobs and Hacker conclude, families work harder for only a modest increase in the amount of income they receive.

Welfare Crimes

In her study, "The "crime of survival': Fraud prosecutions, community surveillance, and the original 'welfare queen'," Julilly Kohler-Hausmann (2007) University of Illinois, traces the genesis of the "welfare queen" and investigates the primary role of criminal procedures in enshrining particular beliefs in popular mythology and ways these myths clashed with, and silenced the welfare recipients' perspectives. Kohler-Hausmann also investigates the anti-welfare fraud initiatives in Illinois in the 1970s to reflect that charges of criminality contributed to the increased stigmatization welfare recipients experienced.

During 1999, Kohler-Hausmann (2007) reports, welfare recipients who collected trash along New York highways worked for approximately $1.10 per hour in exchange for the cash grants they received. During their work hours, as their workfare uniform, these individuals wore state issued orange prison jumpsuits. This practice enforced by New York state linked these women's bodies to criminality that rhetorically encircled them for decades. Kohler-Hausmann further expounds on this historical criminal connection for welfare recipients:

The chain gang ritual broadcast recipients' marginalized social position and advertised the state's efforts to simultaneously punish and reform them. The spectacle rested upon commonly accepted beliefs that welfare recipients were lazy, sexually promiscuous, African-American women who spawned the criminal "culture of poverty" in America's inner cities. Encapsulated most often in the persona of the "welfare queen," these stereotypes have figured prominently in domestic policy fights during the past decades and were integral in rationalizing the elimination of the federal welfare program, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, in President Clinton's landmark 1996 "welfare reform" legislation (Kohler-Hausmann, 2007, ¶ 1).

Welfare Recipients

Kohler-Hausmann (2007) blends a bit of policy history with social history to relay the interactions at the local level, amidst a myriad of negative cultural assumptions, material conditions, legislation and policy implementation's interpretation. Kohler-Hausmann investigated incidents of the individuals in the community who reported some they knew who participated in welfare fraud. She reports ways the reporting individual's participation helped reshape the state's anti-fraud campaign. Kohler-Hausmann explores how "the anti-fraud initiatives interacted with welfare recipients' strategies for making ends meet on low monthly cash grants" (Kohler-Hausmann, 2007, ¶ 9). The study by Kohler-Hausmann also investigated numerous ways welfare recipients construed and opposed the new policies, as well as the broader social implications of the state's punitive programs (Kohler-Hausmann, 2007, ¶ 9).

Racism and racial politics, particularly those the New Deal instituted vitally shaped social welfare programs. Individuals who worked in the domestic realm, as well as agricultural workers, generally understood to be African-Americans, "were ineligible for social insurance, such as Social Security and unemployment insurance. When they were able to access state support, African-American families were forced to rely on the more paltry and stigmatized programs, such as ADC" (Kohler-Hausmann, 2007, Managing caseloads… section, ¶ 9). In the south, a number of states barred Black women completely from receiving state aid, particularly when farmers demanded extra labor during harvest times. These particular policies reinforced the assumption African-American women ought to be a part of the formal workforce; not governed by domesticity's White notions. The practice by program administrators of barring a number of African-Americans and unwed mothers from receiving welfare protected ADC from public criticism and simultaneously retained low costs, while enforcing the social norms of the dominant society (Kohler-Hausmann).

Forrester Blanchard Washington

In "Forrester Blanchard Washington and his advocacy for African-Americans in the new deal," Frederica H. Barrow (2007), Assistant professor, School of Social Work, University of South Florida, recounts the work of Forrester Blanchard Washington during 1934. Washington's efforts focused attention on the need for work opportunities for African-American people, as he sought to change policies "that placed African-Americans on public assistance programs and that 'reinforced the links of dependence and subordination' between them and elite white people" (Barrow, 2007, ¶ 1). According to Washington, if/when the government removed discriminatory barriers to employment for African-Americans, this would in turn remove many African-Americans from depending on government or other "relief,' as well as help revive the African-American's instinct to be self-reliant.

Studying Washington's advocacy and contributions helps counter negative perceptions regarding the African-Americans' desires for work opportunities, Barrow (2007) purports. Studying Washington's experiences expands one's social work knowledge relating to efforts to influence welfare policy development during the Great Depression, as well fosters "awareness of the multiple political and ideological factors that contribute to policy outcomes, such as African-Americans becoming disproportionately dependent on welfare benefits" (Barrow, 2007, Washington's social… section, ¶ 3). Studying Washington's historical advocacy efforts encourages others to address contemporary social justice concerns relating to current, as well as future challenges relating to the federal, state and metro governments' roles, relating to African-Americans and the recession.

Upturn Projections

In New

Directions In Manufacturing Report of a Workshop, The Committee on New Directions in Manufacturing, National Research Council (2004) asserts that based on historical patterns, some of the job losses the recent recession caused will be permanent. In a cyclical recovery, however, new jobs, however, will be created. For the workers experiencing layoffs, the experiences severely disrupts their lives. Many of these individuals, also according to historical patterns will be rehired in an economical upturn, following the recession.

A concern exists regarding the shortage of skills in the labor force. "What manufacturing faces is not a lack of employees but a lack of well-qualified employees with specific educational backgrounds and skills" (Committee on New…, 2004, p. 79). During the recession, considered a period of transformation, the configuration of manufacturing careers will, according to projected indicators, will shift toward:

Higher-skills professions: management; marketing; sales and services; and maintenance operations. (Committee on New…, 2004, p. 79)

In addition, higher technology is expected to become even more pervasive. Consequently, manufacturing positions will become even more sought after. A study the National Research Council performed reinforces the projected pattern of future development (Ibid.). The Council's study:

…concluded that by 2020 manufacturing will remain one of the principal means by which wealth is created and that it is critical that the United States be prepared to implement advanced manufacturing methods in a timely way.

This study also proposed that the evolving competitive climate will require agile, rapid responses by manufacturers to market forces, because sophisticated customers around the world will increasingly demand customized products. "The basis of competition will be creativity and innovation in all aspects of the manufacturing enterprise." Skilled workers will be a critical factor in national and organizational competitiveness. The study concluded that "workers in this climate will need a wide range of skills, including strategic planning, market analysis, engineering design, supply chain management, finance, production planning, and order fulfillment. Although not everyone in the manufacturing enterprise will be expert in all skills, the more skills an individual has, the more valuable [he or she] will be to the organization." (Committee on New…, 2004, p. 79)

African-American Needs

Austin (2008) reports that no matter the national unemployment status, the African-American unemployment traditionally equals more than twice the unemployment rate Whites experience. This fact, according to Austin, confirms that even when no official recession exists, the majority of African-Americans continue to experience a recession. When White Americans experience a recession, Austin further contends, African-Americans struggle in an economic depression.

Faced with the prospect of another recession, what black America needs is what all of America needs: a stimulus package that will help average Americans and those with the most insecure jobs. The lesson from black America is that the poorest among us are most hurt by recessions. Stimulus proposals based on tax cuts for the wealthy or for business owners are not likely to provide immediate relief to those still hurting from the 2001 recession, much less protect them from the additional damage of a new one.

A better approach would be to boost the economy by 1) providing targeted supports through expanded unemployment insurance and broad-based tax rebates, 2) providing assistance to states to prevent tax increases or spending cuts, and 3) directly stimulating job growth by accelerating funding for infrastructure, particularity for bridge and school repair. (Austin, 2008,What black America needs section, ¶ ¶ 2-3).

2.5: Metropolitan Government Practices

Comparing African-Americans in Other Cities vs. DC

In a 2007 press release, the University of California, Berkeley's Center for Labor Research and Education finds that more than half of the U.S. African-American workers are employed in low-paying jobs that do not provide retirement and health benefits, nor do they provide opportunities for the African-American worker to advance . The report, "Job Quality and Black Workers: An Examination of the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, Chicago and New York," which utilized data from the 2000 U.S. Census to analyze low-wage jobs among African-American workers, which proves relevant today, found:

1.) [The recession is] & #8230;a two-dimensional problem that includes both the crisis of unemployment in the & #8230;[African-American] community and the crisis of low-wage jobs.

2.) The year 2000 was the peak year of the 1990s expansion; while the recession was relatively short, the extremely slow recovery meant that average economic outcomes have barely improved since then

3.) While 22.5% of all & #8230;[African-Americans] in the United States live below the poverty line in 2000, & #8230;that figure rose to 24.7 in 2005, the most recent year for which such data is available. (Berkely, Calif…, 2007, ¶ ¶ 3-7)

According to the Berkely study, the primary findings by the Labor Center include:

4.) Some 56.5% of & #8230;[African-American] workers in the country earn low