Shi\'ite and Sunni Muslims Throughout

¶ … Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims

Throughout Islamic history, Shi'ites developed a denomination distinct in various significant ways from that of Sunnis. The differences between Islam's two major denominations arose as early as the beginning of Islamic history, and in fact took place shortly after Islam's fourth caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib came to power. Initially, these differences centered on a political dispute over who should serve as the prophet's successor after his death.

One side of the dispute, which was and continues to be adhered to by the majority of Muslims today, believed that the prophet's successor, or caliph, could be any individual that was righteous and God-fearing. Thus, according to this understanding, any of the prophet's companions were capable of taking over the leadership of the caliphate, as his loyal friend Abu Bakr had done immediately after his death. The Sunni Muslims of today continue to hold this understanding of political leadership in Islam.

The other side of the dispute, which was and continues to be held by a small but significant minority of Muslims today, believed that only members of the prophet's household, who were known as the Ahlul-Bayt, were capable of taking over the leadership. They thus believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the prophet's cousin and son-in-law, was supposed to be the rightful heir to leadership of the caliphate immediately after the prophet's death. This group later began to distinguish itself as the Shiat Ali, or "partisans of Ali," who believed that only members of the Ahlul Bayt beginning with Ali could serve as caliphs of the Islamic state.

Initial differences over political ideology caused Shi'ites to branch off from the majority Sunni Muslim community and form their own ideological viewpoints on various other issues. Besides politics, Shi'ites later developed their own distinguished set of beliefs regarding theology and jurisprudence. This meant that they now developed their own understanding of belief in the Islamic creed, practice of the five established pillars of Islam, interpretation of the Quranic text, acceptance and rejection of the prophet's Hadiths, sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and position of the various eminent Islamic personalities in history, particularly from among the prophet's companions. The Shi'ite branch later subdivided into various smaller sects, which hold differing viewpoints about various matters despite sharing some fundamental concepts of the Shi'ite belief system.

The origin of the disagreement between Shi'ites and Sunnis occurred shortly after Ali's takeover of power. Ali became the fourth caliph of Islam who was preceded by Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, the prophet's other son-in-law. During his rule Ali faced opposition from the Kharijis and Muawiyah, who would subsequently take over the caliphate after Ali and form the Umayyad dynasty ("Shiism," 2005).

The earliest Shi'ite followers thus served as political proponents of Ali's right to rule the state; they did not possess any discernible beliefs and practices apart from the majority of Muslims at the time other than their differing political opinion. This opinion, which was derived from Shi'ite interpretation of Hadiths and events that occurred during Islam's early days, went beyond simply supporting Ali's right to rule. It was meant to support the future right of any member of the Ahlul-Bayt to rule. When Ali died the Shi'ites continued to call for this rule by claiming that one of Ali's various sons had the right to serve as leader of the caliphate. The Shi'ites began separating amongst themselves based on whichever son they supported as having that right.

During his lifetime, the prophet was the undisputed leader of the nascent Islamic state, which was formed in Medina after his emigration there from Mecca. After he died, the Muslims gathered to decide upon his successor for the leadership of the state. This action was undertaken because during his lifetime, the prophet had never explicitly designated a successor for himself.

A clan of the Ansar, who were the native inhabitants of Medina that generously supported the prophet and his companions from Mecca after the emigration, gathered in the hall of B. Sa'ida around Sa'd b. Ubada. The Muhajirun, who were the Muslims that emigrated with the prophet from Mecca to Medina, gathered within another location around Abu Bakr, the prophet's close friend and companion. Ali ibn Abi Talib, al-Zubayr b. al-Awwam, and Talha b. 'Ubaydullah kept themselves separate from the rest of the Muslims in the house of Fatima, the prophet's daughter and wife of Ali.

The Muhajirun decided to gather at the hall of B. Sa'ida with the Ansar in order to come to a decision over who could be the rightful ruler of the Muslims. At this meeting it was unanimously decided among all who were present that Abu Bakr should serve as that rightful ruler, so they thus pledged allegiance to him. The rest of the Muslim citizens subsequently followed suit with the allegiance without engaging in any public objections to it. Thus Abu Bakr became the first caliph of the Islamic state, effectively taking over the leadership once held exclusively by the prophet (Guillaume, Oct. 2002, p. 683-687).

Sunnis overwhelmingly regard this political decision taken by early Muslims as evidence for showing that the ruler of the Islamic state need not necessarily be a member of the prophet's household. He could be any Muslim individual that possessed the qualities of piety and righteousness and his legitimacy was determined by public election or appointment. Thus Sunnis do not believe that anyone, including members of the prophet's household, has any natural right to the caliphate.

The Shi'ites, however, dispute this belief based on their interpretation of some Hadiths and events from Islam's early days. First, they claim that the prophet had, on several occasions during his lifetime, professed that Ali should serve as his successor. For example, during the banquet that the prophet hosted in Mecca in order to introduce Islam to his kinsmen, he asked who among them would be his brother, executor, and successor in Islam.

When no one, except Ali, replied that he would be that, the prophet affirmed Ali's reply by stating that he was indeed his brother, executor, and successor ("A Shi'ite Encyclopedia," Nov. 1999). Shi'ites interpret this and other evidences to conclude that the prophet wished for Ali to succeed him. They thus believe that Ali was supposed to have succeeded the prophet instead of Abu Bakr immediately after his death.

Secondly, Shi'ites claim that Ali was initially against the appointment of Abu Bakr for the caliphate. They make this claim based on Ali's refusal to give allegiance to Abu Bakr for six months. He finally did give it, however, after the death of his wife Fatima, the beloved daughter of the prophet ("A Shi'ite Encyclopedia," Nov.1999). Based on this they believe that Ali felt usurped of his natural right to the leadership, thus affirming that this right belonged only to the Ahlul-Bayt. This belief does not take into account the fact that Ali did indeed recognize the legitimacy of caliphs either elected or appointed by the public. He stated this recognition in a letter to Muawiyah after his own victorious election for the caliphate ("A Shi'ite Encyclopedia," Nov. 1999).

The beliefs and practices of Shi'ites differ from that of Sunnis in various ways. A brief overview of their system reveals the following characteristics. In terms of belief in the Islamic creed Shi'ites, like Sunnis, believe in the oneness of God and in the prophet hood of Muhammad. Unlike Sunnis, however, they proclaim that Ali had been chosen by God to be the rightful leader, or Imam, of the entire world. Thus, when proclaiming the shahada, the Muslim testimony of faith, Shi'ites add the phrase "and Ali is God's friend" at the end of the general Islamic declaration, "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his Messenger"("Shiism," 2005).

Shi'ites believe in the existence of righteous Imams throughout history who had the exclusive right to the caliphate after the death of Ali. In keeping with the belief that political power belonged to the Ahlul-Bayt, all these Imams had to be descendants of Ali and were believed by Shi'ites to possess qualities akin to what belonged to prophets, namely infallibility (ism), miraculous powers, and divinely granted knowledge (ilm). This belief contrasts with the one held by Sunnis, which states that the caliph did not have to belong to the Ahlul-Bayt, had no powers because these were exclusive to prophets only, and had to be elected or appointed into power rather than be the inheritor of it.

In terms of practicing the established five pillars of Islam, it has already been stated how Shi'ites view the shahada, which is the first pillar. Shi'ites recognize the remaining four pillars, which are prayer, fasting, zakat, and hajj respectively. However, different sects practice the injunctions laid by these pillars differently. Some sects believe that one can perform prayer three times a day, as opposed to five times as commanded by the second pillar. Alongside paying zakat, or the poor-tax, Shi'ites believe that an additional tax known as Khums is also to be paid. Finally some sects command their followers to perform ziyara, or what they consider to be minor pilgrimages, to the tombs of Imams in addition to the pilgramage to Mecca ("Shiism," 2005).

While recognizing the two Islamic holidays Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha, Shi'ites incorporated additional festivals into their system, some of which will be described here. The first major festival is the Festival of Muharram and Ashura, in which Shi'ites observe the martyrdom of Husayn, the son of Ali. This festival is supposed to fall upon the 10th of the Islamic month Muharram. Sunnis observe fasting on this day for reasons completely different from the Shi'ites.

The second major festival is known as Milad-un-Nabi, which is supposed to commemorate the birthday of Prophet Muhammad. Shi'ites consider the 17th of the month Rabi al-Awwal as being the prophet's birthday. Sunnis place the day to be 12th of Rabi al-Awwal; they do not place any special significance to it. The third major festival is known as Eid-ul-Ghadeer, which is celebrated on the 18th of Dhul-Hijjah. It commemorates Ghadir Khum, which is supposed to be the day when, according to Shi'ites, the prophet publicly declared the imamate of Ali before a gathering of Muslims. Other major festivals observed by Shi'ites include Arba'een, Mid of Shaban, and Al-Mubahila ("Shia Islam").

In terms of understanding the sources of Islamic jurisprudence, both Sunnis and Shi'ites accept them to be the Quran, Hadiths, consensus of the community (Ijma), and human opinion based on reason (ijtihad). Shi'ites, however, differ from Sunnis over how consensus should occur and what ijtihad should be based upon. In terms of consensus, Shi'ites believe that communal agreement has to coincide with that of the Imam. With regard to ijtihad, Shi'ites believe that an opinion has to be derived from reasoning (aql) while Sunnis state that it has to be derived from analogy (qiyas). Some Shia sects believe that human opinion is unnecessary since Imams are supposed to possess infallibility and divinely granted knowledge like the prophets. Therefore, according to this, only Imams are capable of performing ijtihad ("Shiism," 2005).

While both Shi'ites and Sunnis revere and regard the Quran and Hadiths as divinely inspired sources of jurisprudence, both differ over ways of approaching them. Shi'ites often make interpretations of Quranic text that Sunnis consider being invalid. Shi'ites use a different approach towards understanding the Hadiths, or recorded sayings and actions of the prophet. Shi'ites generally believe that the sayings and actions of Imams are as much worthy of being sources of guidance as the prophet's Hadiths because of their supposed infallibility and knowledge. Also they will base their acceptance or rejection of the prophet's Hadiths upon whether its transmitters were Imams or righteous Shi'ites. Sunnis may accept Hadiths transmitted by Imams but will reject those whose source was an Imam rather than the prophet. Due to differing opinions over the sources of jurisprudence, Shi'ites have often derived legal opinions unrecognizable to Sunnis, such as changes in the laws of inheritance and the allowance of temporary marriages or mu'ta ("Shiism," 2005).

Finally, one other difference in belief and system between Shi'ites and Sunnis is that Shi'ites will not view all the eminent Islamic personalities from Islam's early days favorably. For example, they do not view some of the prophet's companions, such as the first three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as being paragons of Islamic virtue. Sunnis on the other hand hold all four of Islam's earliest caliphs, which includes Ali, in the highest honor and distinction.

After the death of Ali, Shi'ites began to look towards his various sons as possible candidates for the Imamate. Different Shi'ite sects began to form based upon whichever of Ali's descendants they supported for the Imamate. Originally formed in order to politically affiliate themselves with their candidates for the Imamate, these sects later differentiated themselves from each other based on innovated religious tenets. Throughout history, three major Shi'ite sects were in existence. The largest and most recognizable sect was the Imamis; they are distinguished from others by their belief that twelve successive imams have existed in the world. Despite their large numbers, they were never able to obtain political power like the imams of the two other major sects. The Imamis have been predominantly located in Iran since the 16th century AD and now have huge populations in present-day Iraq, South Lebanon, India, and Pakistan ("Shiism," 2005).

The second major Shi'ite sect was the Ismailis, who believed in the existence of seven successive imams. They were able to obtain political power during the Middle Ages in various parts of the world. One line of Ismailis, known as the Fatimids, established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt from 909-1171 AD. Another line of Ismailis, known as the Qaramita, formed their own state in Bahrain and Oman. The Fatimids later split up into several smaller sects during the 11th century; these included the Nizaris, who left Egypt to form a small state in Iran and Syria, the Tayyibis, who formed communities in both Yemen and India, and the Druzes, who although now are apostates of Islam were once an off-shoot of the Fatimids. Today Ismaili populations are largely located in India, Iran, and Lebanon ("Shiism," 2005).

The third major sect was the Zaidis, who believed in the existence of five successive imams. This sect, named after Zaid ibn Ali, rejects the mainstream Shi'ite doctrine of the Imamate. They do not subscribe to the belief that imams possess powers and abilities equivalent to that of prophets. Instead they state that any descendants of Ali and Fatima who are learned, God-fearing, and politically active have the right to the Imamate. In many ways they share more ideological beliefs and practices in common with Sunnis than with their fellow Shi'ites. The Zaidis established their own political base in Yemen, which lasted from the 9th century to 1963. Another Zaidi state was formed for a short while in Tabaristan, Iran in the 9th century. Zaidis today are overwhelmingly located in Yemen ("Shiism," 2005).

Throughout their history Shi'ites as a whole were suspected of wrongdoing and subsequently persecuted by leaders of the Islamic caliphate. The most difficult time of persecution was during the rule of the first Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. The Shi'ites' situation was slightly alleviated during the rule of Umar II. But Shi'ite communities had to often be suppressed because of frequent rebellions that they initiated against the caliphate. Almost all the recognized Shi'ite imams were assassinated. During the Abbasid caliphate, Shi'ites were initially spared persecution. However, it was not long before the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur initiated the suppression once again. Various Sunni scholars throughout history, such as Malik ibn Anas, Abu Hanifah an-Nu'man, Imam Shafi'I, Ibn Hanbal, al-Bukhari, and Al-Ghazali among others, labeled Shi'ites as disbelievers or kafirs. It was not until the Middle Ages when Shi'ite-Sunni relations improved significantly due to Shi'ites gaining political influence in Baghdad, the capital of the caliphate ("Historical Shia-Sunni Relations").

Today Shi'ites represent 10% of the Muslim population and are predominantly located in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Lebanon. Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan have significant Shia minorities. Other than gaining political influence in Iran, Shi'ites have no political autonomy or representation in other parts of the world. Relations between Shi'ites and Sunnis today have continued to remain tense, although some Sunni scholars and institutions, such as world-renowned Al-Azhar University, have begun calling for unity. Other Sunni scholars and groups, such as the Salafis and House of Saud, however continue to regard Shi'ites as being kafirs or disbelievers. The group Al-Qaeda has openly committed violent attacks against Shi'ites at their mosques and shrines, most notably in Iraq ("Historical Shia-Sunni Relations").